AQA A Level Psychology Attachment

What is an attachment?

Close two-way emotional bond between 2 individuals where each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security. It endures overtime and serves to protect the infant.

Caregiver

any person who provides care for a child

Seperation distress

people are distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence

Secure-base behaviour

even when we are independent, we tend to make regular contact with out attachment figures. Babies display this behaviour when they regularly return to their attachment figure when playing

Two caregiver-infant interactions are...

Reciprocity and Interactional Synchrony

What is reciprocity?

Reciprocity is a description of how two people interact. It refers to the mutual exchange of responses between infant and their caregiver. Each elicits a response in the other, resulting in a back-and-forth pattern of communication.

Infants have high alert phases and signal when they are ready for interaction. Feldman suggested from around 3 months the alert phases become more frequent and involve close attention to each other's verbal signals and facial expressions.

E.g. when infant smiles/coos and caregiver response with smile reinforcing infants behaviour and encouraging further interaction

What is interactional synchrony?

Temporal coordination of behaviours between infant and caregiver. They mirror each other in terms of facial and body movements. (reflect actions and emotions of each other in coordination)

Outline research that supports interactional synchrony

Meltzoff and Moore: controlled observation on interacitonal synchrony in babies as young as 2 weeks old. An adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or hand gestures. Child had dummy in mouth to prevent facial response and after the display from adult, dummy was removed. The children response was filmed and identified by independent observers. There was a clear association between the infants' behaviour and that of the adult model.

Isabella et al observed 30 mothers and infants and found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better mother-infant attachment.

Significance of these interactions

It is believed they have important functions for the child's social development and form the basis of the attachment between the two. The more responsive or sensitive they are to each other's signals, the deeper the bond.

Evaluate research into infant-caregiver interactions

+ Usually controlled observations as often filmed in lab. Observations can be recorded & analysed later increasing accuracy. Procedure is standardised so study has high reliability as can be repeated to check for consistency. Unlikely to miss key behaviours.

++ Filmed interacitons means more than one observer can record data. Inter-rater reliability can be established. Increases confiedence findings are objective.

+++ Internal validity as babies unlikely to know know they being observed. Reduces demand characteristics. Ensures behaviours are natural.

- Hard to interpret baby's behaviour. Babies lack coordination and much of their body is immobile. Observations only look at the changes in hand movements and gestures. It is very difficult to be certain that the moves or gestures were actually deliberate or accidental. Reduces the value of the insight into caregiver-infant interaction.

- Social sensitivity is concern when investigating child rearing techniques. Parents may find their life choices criticised, such as mother who return to the workplace shortly after giving birth. May feel they are harming child's attachment. Creates unnecessary guilt or anxiety.

-- If findings suggest certain parenting styles lead to better attachments parents may blame themselves if their attachment is not strong.

Outline Schaffer's stages of attachment Research

60 babies from working-class families in Glasgow. Researcher visited babies in their homes every month for a year and one again at 18 months. Interviewed mothers and observed the children in relation to separation and stranger anxiety in a range of everyday activities.

- 50% of the babies showed separation anxiety between 25-32 weeks of age

- First attachment was 6-8 months

- By 40 weeks 80% had a specific attachment and 30% showed multiple attachments.

- Attachments were most likely to form with those who were most sensitive to babies signals

Provide support for Shaffer's stages

Evaluate Schaffer's research into attachment

+ High external validity. Observations conducted in each child's home. Less controlled more familiar setting. both parent and infant more likely to act more naturally.

++ Parents observed seperation and stranger anxiety during ordinary activities. Further reinsuring natural behaviour.

- Relied on self-report methods. Mothers' answers may have been influenced by social desirability bias. May have reported inaccurate details such as exaggerating positive behaviour about children. Make child appear more securely attached. Therefore biased data which may not accurately reflect child's true attachment behaviours. Reduces internal validity of findings.

- Lacks population validity. Sample consisted only 60 working class mother and babies in Glaskow. Narrow and culturally specific group. Attachments patterns may differ from welathier families or families from other cultural backgrounds. Unable to generalise.

-- Lacks temporal validity. Done in 1960s. Lot has changed since then in regards to primary caregivers. Mothers were typically primary caregivers. Modern family structures and gender roles have changed. Findings may not accurately reflect contemporary attachment figures.

Outline Schaffer's stages of attachment

Stage 1: The Asocial Stage (0-2months)

Babies behaviour towards non-human objects and humans is similar but they do show a slight preference to humans and are happier when they are present.

Stage 2: Indiscriminate Attachment (2-7 months)

Begin to show a preference to humans over inanimate objects and also now recognise and prefer familiar adult faces. However they accept cuddles and affection from any adult. NO separation or stranger anxiety is shown.

Stage 3: Specific Attachment (7-12 months)

Infant shows preference for one caregiver and looks to them for security and protection (PCG 65% mother). Start to display stranger and separation anxiety.

Stage 4: Multiple Attachments (12 months+)

Baby forms secondary attachments to other adults who they spend time with. After one month of forming a PAF 29% formed secondary attachments and by the age of one, had secondary attachments.

Evaluate Schaffer's Stages of Attachment

- Cannot be certain of the baby's behaviour during the asocial stage. Infants have extremely limited motor control. Much of behaviour uncoordinated or random. Observations rely heavily on subtle movements such as changes in hand position. Difficult to determines if behaviour is intentional or accidental. Cannot confidently judge an infant's social responses. Reduces validity of conclusion on asocial stage.

- Used very narrow behavioural indicators. Mainly seperation and stranger anxiety to define attachment. oversimplifying attachment into two observable behaviours. Theory may lack depth. Reduces overall value of stages as explanation of how attachments develop.

- Represent nomothetic approach. Proposes a general law of development all children are expected to follow. Such theories do not apply to all children. For example in some collectivist cultures, infants form multiple attachments simultaneously rather than forming one primary attachment first. Undermines claim that the stages are universal. Suggests the model may reflect cultural bias. Reduces external validity.

Outline the role of the father

Research into the role of the father has focused on a variety of different questions. These include whether infants attach to their fathers, does the father have a distinctive role and whether a father can be a primary attachment figure.

Outline research studies into the role of the father

Traditionally in UK father went to work and spent less time with children, while mother stayed home to care for children.

Schaffer & Emerson (1964) found that father was the primary attachment figure in only 3% of families.

By 18 months 75% of infants had formed an attachment to their father as showed separation anxiety.

Grossman's longitudinal study found that the quality of fathers' play with their infants was strongly associated with the quality of the children's attachments in adolescence. However, the quality of the baby's attachment to the father did not predict later attachment quality. This suggests that the father play a role contributing more through play and stimulation, and less to do with emoitional development.

However, there is evidence to suggest that when fathers do take on the role of primary caregiver, they are able to adopt the emotional role typically associated with mothers.

Field et al found that primary caregiver fathers spent more time, like mothers, holding, smiling and imitating than secondary caregiver fathers. Which are important behaviours when building attachments. Showing that fathers have the potential to be the more emotion-focused primary attachment figure. They can provide the responsiveness required for close emotional attachment when given the role of primary caregiver.

Evaluate research into the role of the father

- Lack of clarity over question being asked. Role of the father is not a single concept. Some research is interested in their role as a secondary attachment whilst others as a primary attachment figure. For example, the study by Grossman found that the fathers who had secondary attachments, had an important role in their child's development. Whereas, field et al looked at the role of the father being the primary caregiver. Makes it difficult to draw single conclusion as it really depends what specific role is being discussed.

+ Real world application. Research showing that fathers can be effective primary attachment figures offers reassurance to parents. Allows families make economiclly efficient decisions. Such as mother returning to work if she is higher earner or more specialsied skills. Better for economic's workforce, reduces financial pressure on families, positive economic implications for society.

-- However, biological differences may still influence caregiver roles. Woman typically higher level of oestrogen. Hormone linked to emotional processing and nurturing behaviours. Mother may be naturally more emotionally responsive than fathers. Could limit how interchangeable caregiving roles are in practice.

- Conflicting evidence. Grossman et al suggested fathers have distinct role as secondary attachment figures.

If true would expect that children raised in in single-mother or same-sex female parent families to develop differently. McCallum & Golombok found no differences in development in these families. Remains unclear whether fathers truly have unique, essential role.

Outline Lorenz's Animal Study into attachment

Lorenz divided up clutch of goose eggs. Half were hatched with the mother goose and other half in an incubator where Lorenz was first living thing they saw. Found that incubator group followed him around everywhere whereas control group stayed with the mother and ignored him. When the two groups were mixed they stuck with their original attachment figure.

Lorenz called this imprinting. Suggested that there was a critical period of a few hours depending on the species. If imprinting does not occur then the chicks do not attach to a mother figure.

Also investigated sexual imprinting. Relationship between imprinting and adult mate preferences. Birds that imprinted on human would display courtship towards humans.

Evaluate Lorenz's Animal Study

- Conflicting research. Later research found chickens would imprint on washing up gloves as was largest moving object at birth. Would try mate with it in adulthood. But with experience chickens learnt to prefer mating with other chickens instead. Suggests effects of imprinting may not be as permanent as initially thought. Reduces validity Lorenz's claim imprinting irreversible.

- Limited generalisability. Only used birds so findings may not apply to humans. Attachment formation in mammals more complex with stronger emotional bonds. Furthermore able to form attachments beyond first few hours after birth, unlike Lorenz's critical period. Conclusions abt human attachment should be treated with caution.

+ Real world applciation. Highliy influential understanding early attachment and concept of critical period. Informed later reseach including Bowlby's theory of attachment. Uses idea of biologically determined critical period in humans. Therefore findings helped shape key attachment theories (strong theoretical value).

Outline Harlow's Animal Study into attachment

Reared 16 baby rhesus monkeys with two surrogate wire model mothers. One mother made entirely of wire and dispensed milk from a bottle, other covered in soft cloth and provided no food. Monkey placed in cage with both mothers present. Recorded time spent with each mother and behaviour when exposed to fear-inducing stimuli.

Found monkeys spent far more time clinging to cloth mother even though provided no food. Showes contact comfort more important than feeding in attachment formation.

When frightened monkeys ran to cloth mother for safety and comfort. Once calmed down used her as secure base to explore and even confront the fear stimulus.

Recordered behaviour of monkey in long term. Monkeys raised without real mother showed permanent social and emotional damage. More aggressive, less sociable, bred less often. As mothers, were inadequate. Didn't have model of how to be nurturing. Some neglected their infants and others attacked them.

Harlow proposed critical period of 90 days. If attachment had not been formed by then, it never would. Damage from maternal deprivation was irreversible. after this point.

Evaluate Harlow's Animal Study

- Ethical issues. Suffered severe and long-lasting harm.

Experienced extreme emotional distress due to early maternal separation. Led to irreversible social and emotional damage. High genetic similarity to humans so complex emotional capacities. Raises concern subjecting them to intense suffering. However findings were influential so there is argument whether scientific value justifies significant harm inflicted on monkeys.

+ Practical applications. Improve understanding of attachment. Gives valuable insight into importance of emotional security when forming healthy attachments.

++ Has helped social workers identify risks associated with emotional neglect. Support for children now emphasises not only physical needs but also consistent comfort and emotional care.

+++ Influenced guidelines for fostering, adoption and institutional care highlighting necessity for nurturing relationships.

- Limited generalisability. While rhesus monkeys are similar to humans. Human brain and behaviour still more complex.

State two explanations of attachment

The learning theory (Behavioural)

Bowlby's Theory (Biological)

Explain classical conditioning linking it to attachment

Dollard & Miller argued infants become attached to caregiver because caregiver provides food (cupboard love theory).

Milk from mother acts as unconditioned stimulus. Naturally produces pleasure/relief from hunger which is unconditioned response. Caregiver initially neutral stimulus. Through repeated feeding caregiver becomes associated with pleasure from food. Caregiver becomes conditioned stimulus. Infant now shows pleasure in response to caregiver alone, conditioned response.

This conditioned response is attachment formed.

Explain operant conditioning linking it to attachment

Learning from consequences of behaviour.

When infants cry caregiver responds by feeding or comforting. Food is pleasurable consequence so infant's crying is positively reinforced. Increases likelihood intant cry again to get needs met.

When caregiver feeds infant, crying stops. Removal of unpleasant stimulis acts as negative reinforcer for caregiver. Caregiver more likely to respond again.

Hunger is primary drive as innate biological need and food is primary reinforcer. Caregiver who provdes food becomes secondary reinforcer. Over time infant learns to associate caregiver with reduction of hunger. Creates secondary drive of attachment. Infant seeks caregiver because now linked with comfort & relief.

Evaluate the learning theories explanation of attachment

- Undermined by Harlow's research. Found baby rhesus monkeys spent more time with a cloth mother that offered comfort than a wire mother that provided food. Demonstrates attachment forms due to eemotional security from contact comfort and not feeding. Undermines cupboard love explanation by showing that food may not be primary driver of attachment.

-- Schaffer and Emmerson found that infants often formed primary attachment to their mother despite often being fed by other carers. Contradicts the learning theories explanation that feeding is basis of attachment.

--- Isabella et al found that high levels of interacitonal synchrony linked to higher-quality attachments. Suggests sensitivity and responsiveness more important than food. Highlights learning theory ignores key emotional processes.

+ Science credibility. Based on classical and operant conditioning. Both well-established behavioural principles. Supported by controlled, replicable research. Give theory strong scientific foundation.

Outline Bowlbys Monotropic Theory

ASCMI-ADAPTIVE,SOCIAL RELEASES,CRITICAL PERIOD, MONOTROPY, IWM

Attachmen is an innate, evolutionary process. It provised a survival advantage as infants who stay close to caregivers are more likely to receive protection, fodd, and warmth increasing chances of survival.

Four key features of Bowlby's theory:

1. Social releases -Infants possess inborn social releasers that trigger caregiver responses in adults. For example crying, cooing, having big eyes/baby face. This activates adult social interaction encouraging adult to attach to infant.

2. Critical period - Infants must form an attachment with caregiver during the critical period. It is a sensitive period that lasts from birth until 2.5 years. If attachment does not form during this period, will be harder to form one later and attachment may never fully develop. Leads to long term emotional and social difficulties.

3. Monotropy - Infants form one special, primary attachment. This special intense attachment, called monotropy, is more important than the others. Frequent separation from mother is harmful for infant and therefore safest dose is zero.

4. Internal working model (IWM) - Through monotropic attachment infant forms an internal working model. This is a mental template for future relationships. If child has strong and healthy attachment with primary attachment figure, they will develop strong and healthy relationships later in life. (Vice versa...)

IWM influences later friendships, romatic relationships and parenting style in adulthood.

Evaluate Bowlby's Monotropic Theory

+ Support for IWM. Bailey et al observed attachments in 99 mothers and they one year old infants and attachments of the mothers to their primary caregivers. Mothers who reported poor attachment to their own primary caregivers were more likely to have poor attachments to their infants. Supports Bowlby claim that IWM is passed across generations. Shaping a parent's ability to form attachments with their own children.

-- Social sensitivity. Idea of internal working model is responsible for the child's future attachment outcomes. This can lead to mothers receiving blame if children later develop relationship difficulties. Raises ethical concerns as places excessive responsibility on mothers. Theory therefore may be socially sensitive. Reduces its acceptability and practical usefulness.

- Research by Schaffer and Emerson challenges validity of monotropy. Found most infants formed specific attachment first but then developed multiple attachments. Secondary attachments shown to provide similar emotional benefits. Suggests primary attachment not necessarily unique or more important than others.

Weakens claim infants have single special attachment different from all others.

+ Lorenz research supports idea of attachment being innate. Found goslings formed attachments to first moving thing they saw. Supports that attachment is an evolutionary process that occurs automatically in order to increase infant's chances of survival.

Outline The Strange Situation (research into children's attachment behaviour)

Ainsworth's Strange Situation is controlled lab observation designed to assess quality of attachment between infant and caregiver. She had a sample of 100 middle class American infants and observed them through a two way mirror. Behavioural categories used to judge attachment included: proximity-seeking, exploration and secure-base behaviour, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, reunion behaviour. Each episode was 3 min long.

What they did was:

1) Mother and child enter unfamiliar playroom.

2) Child encouraged to explore and play with toys.

3) Stranger enters room attempts to interact with infant

4) Mother leaves while stranger stays

5) Mother re-enters and stranger leaves

6) Mother leaves again

7) Stranger returns offering comfort and play

8) Mother returns and stranger leaves.

Results: She found three attachment types:

Secure (66%),

Insecure avoidant (22%)

Insecure resistant (12%).

Explain Ainsworth's three attachment types

Secure attachment = sensitive & responsive caregiver

-Explore happily regularly returns to caregiver

-Moderate separation distress

-Moderate stranger anxiety

-Require and accept comfort from caregiver in reunion

Insecure Avoidant = unresponsive/emotionally distant caregiver

-Explores freely but doesn't use mother as secure base

-Low separation distress

-Low stranger anxiety

-Unresponsive and avoids contact in reunion

Insecure resistant = inconsistent responsive caregiver

-Seek greater proximity (clingy) and explore less

-High separation distress

-High stranger anxiety

-Resists comfort on reunion (angry)

Infant

usually refers to a child's first year of life although some psychologists include second

Benefits of an attachment

Survival

Food

Love

Security

Attachment is recognised through the following behaviours

proximity

separation distress

secure-base behaviour

Proximity

People try to stay physically close to those they are attached to

Sate two theories for the learning theory

Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Evaluate Ainsworth's Strange Situation

+ Shows strong inter-rater reliability. Means different observers generally agree on same attachment classification. Bick et al found 94% agreement between trained observers when rating infants attachment types. High level of reliability may be due to controlled, standardised procedure and that behaviours are easily observable movements. For example anxious babies may cry. Are confident attachment type assessed by Strange Situation are objective not depend on subjective judgements.

- Oversimplifies attachment categories. Ainsworth originally proposed 3 attachment types: secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant. Later researchers identified a 4th type which they termed 'disorgansied attachment'. This describes infants who are not showing consistent behaviours and a mixed pattern of attachment types. Therefore suggests she overlooked a fourth important category. Her classification system may be incomplete.

- Lacks cultural validity. Strange Situation developed using white, middle-class American mother-infant pairs. Applying these attachment categories to other cultures may be an imposed etic as judging other cultures by Western standards. Collectivist cultures may encourage different child-rearing practices which can affect how infants behaving in Strange Situation. Therefore actions interpreted as signs of insecurity in Western contexts may actually be normal, healthy interaction patterns in other cultures. May not accurately measure attachment outside Western cultures.

Outline research done into cultural differences in attachment types

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies that used Ainsworth's Strange Situation on around 2000 children in total. It included 8 countries from both collectivist and individualistic cultures.

Found that in all countries, secure attachment was the most common. Suggesting secure attachment is global norm. However the proportion varied from 75% in Britain to 50% in China.

Insecure-avoidant rates were more common in individualistic culures similar to Ainsworth's origincal findings.

Insecure resistant was low in individualistic cultures but much higher in collectivist cultures. Israel and Japan both over 25%.

Variations within cultures was 1.5 times greater than variation between cultures.

Outline a study of cultural variations in types of attachments

Germany = high levels of insecure-avoidant

In Germany culture, child rearing practices favour independence from young age. As result infants from this country appear more insecurely attached in stange situation since do not seek proximity to mothers or joy upon reunion.

Evaluate research into cultural differences in attachment types

+ Many studies in Van Ijenzdoorn's meta-analysis were conducted by researchers from the same cultural background as the ppts. For example German researchers studying German infants. Reduces problems common in cross-cultural research, researchers less likely to misinterpret cultural behaviours or misunderstand language. Ensures clear communication between researcher and ppts. Increases internal validity of data collected.

- Lacks cultural validity. Strange Situation developed using white, middle-class American mother-infant pairs. Applying these attachment categories to other cultures may be an imposed etic which is judging other cultures by Western standards. Child-rearing practices differ across cultures. For example collectivist cultures may emphasise interdependence. Behaviours seen as 'insecure' in Western contexts may be normal and healthy elsewhere. Strange Situation may not accurately measure attachment outside Western cultures. Reduces validity of cross-cultural conclusions.

- Studies from different countries are rarely matched for methodology. Factors such as room size, type of toys present, or layout can influence infant behaviour. E.g. larger room may reduce proximity-seeking making child appear more avoidant. As well sample characteristics such as poverty and social class also vary across studies. Because these variables are not controlled differences in attachment classificaiton may reflect methodological difference. Not genuine cultural variation. Limits internal validity of cross-cultural comparisons.

Outline Bowlby's theory of Maternal Deprivation

Continuous care from mother is essential for normal psychological development. Prolonged early separation harms both emotional and intellectual development. Proposed critical period of first 2.5 years, with continued risk up to age 5. Separation from mother during this time has irreversible damage and repeated separations increase the impact.

Consequences include lower cognitive abilities such as abnormally low IQ and affectionless psychopathy as unable to experience remorse and prevents children from forming normal relationships.

Outline research into Maternal Deprivation

Bowlby's 44 Juvenile Thieves:

The sample consisted of 88 children referred to London Child Guidance Clinic for emotional/behavioural issues. 44 were 'thieves' accused of stealing and other 44 non-criminal ppts in control group. Their families were interviewed to identify early prolonged separations from primary caregiver. Bowlby assessed 44 thieves for signs of affectionless psychopathy.

Thieves:

14 /44 thieves were affectionless psychopaths

12 /14 experienced early and prolonged deprivation.

30 /44 not affectionless psychopaths

5 /30 experienced early and prolonged deprivation

Control group:

2/44 experienced early and prolonged deprivation

Suggest link between early maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy. Support Maternal deprivation theory.

Evaluate Maternal Deprivation

- Cause and effect cannot be established. Found relationship between early deprivation and later behavioural problems but correlation not mean causation.

-- Many children in 44 thieves study experienced adverse experiences. These confounding variables mean cannot conclude separation caused later behavioural issues. Conclusion may be overstates and lack internal validity.

- Criticised for not making clear distinction between deprivation and privation. Deprivation refers to loss of primary attachment figure whereas privation refers to failure to form attachment in first place. Rutter argued that severe long-term damage Bowlby described is more likely associated with deprivation more likely due to privation rather than reprivation. Many children in Bowlby's sample had disrupted unstable early lives and may never have formed storng attachment in first place. May have overestimated impact of deprivaiton and misinterpreted cause of later difficulties.

+ Real-world application. Influenced social policy such as maternity leave entitlements. Encouraging mothers to stay home and form secure attachments.

++ Impacted how children looked after in hospitals post-war. Before children were seperated from parents and visiting was even forbidden. Now allow parents to stay. Shows practical value.

What is institutionalisation?

It refers to children spending a period of time within an institute such as an orphanage where there is often little emotional care provided.

Describe evidence for the effects of institutionalisation

Rutter et al conducted longitudinal study on 156 Romanian orphans adopted by UK families. Compared with control group 52 British children adopted before 6 months old. Social, cognitive and physical development of all infants was assessed at regular intervals (age 4, 6, 11, 15). Interviews were conducted with adoptive parents and teachers.

At adoption Romanian orphans showed severe developmental delay. Physically smaller and many classified as mentally retarded.

Adopted before 6 months: Caught up with British control group. Suggests early adoption can reverse effects of institutionalisation.

Adopted after 6 months: Cognitive, social and physical defects. Higher rate of disinhibited attachment (attention-seeking). Difficulty forming and maintaining relationships.

Zeanah assessed attachment in 95 children aged 1-3 years old that spent most their life institutionalised. Compared to a control group of 50 participants. Attachment assessed using stange situation. Found secure attachment in 19% institutionalised group compared to 75% control group.

Institutional care associated with attachment disturbances.

Evaluate these roman orphanage studies

+ Longitudinal study. Followed children over many years allowing researchers to assess both short-term and long-term effects of early institutionalisation. As well shows impact of receiving high-quality follow-on emotional caregiving after adoption. Findings likely valid representation of long-term effects.

-- Longitudinal design risks attrition where ppt dropout over time. This was the case as there was fairly large amount of dropouts. Means sample could be biased as people that stayed could be ones of a particular personality etc. This reduces the validity of conclusions about institutionalisation.

+ Practical applications. Research improved understanding of how early institutional care affects development. Led to changes in children's homes. Avoiding large number of caregivers for each child.

Instead children now have one or two key workers so each child forms stbale emotional bonds. Helps children in institutional care develop normal attachments and avoid most harmful outcomes.

- Confounding variables. Romanian institutions provided extremely poor care. Children received little stimulation, comfort or social interaction. Harmful effects may reflect poor quality of care, not institutionalisation itself. Hard to separate effects of deprivation from effects of institutional living.

- Social sensitivity. Findings show that late-adopted children often have poorer developmental outcomes. Risk parents and teachers may lower expectations or treat children differently. Might create self-fulfilling prophecy. Raises ethical concerns about how research findings could influence attitudes toward adopted children.

Outline the influence of early attachment on later relationships

Bowlby argued early attachments form an internal working model, a mental representation of infant's relationship with thier primary caregiver. Model acts as template for future relationships. A securely attached infant who experiences consistent and loving caregiver is likely to expect the same in relationships later in life.

Relationships in childhood:

Bullying behaviour can be predicted from attachment types. 196 children ages 7-11 were given questionnaires about bullying. They found that secure children were very unlikely to be involved in bullying, avoidant were most likely to be victims, and resistant the bullies.

Relationships in adulthood:

Bailey et al observed attachments in 99 mothers and their infants. Also assessed the mothers' own attachment to their primary caregivers. Mothers who reported poor attachment to their own primary caregivers were more likely to have poor attachments to their infants. IWM is passed across generations. Shaping a parent's ability to form attachments with their own children.

A ''love quiz' was published in a newspaper. Assessed ppts' current relationship, general love experiences and assessed attachment type. Those reporting secure attachments were most likely to have good and longer-lasting romantic experiences. Those with insecure-avoidant tended to be jealous of intimacy and those who were resistant were likely to be single. Attachment type reflected in romantic relationships.

Evaluate the influence of early attachment on later relationships

- Most research uses self-report methods e.g. love quiz. Prone to social desirability bias. Adults may present themselves positively, especially on sensitive topics like relationships and parenting. Reduces internal validity. Conclusion abt early attachment predicting later attachment may be inaccurate.

-- The retrospective nature of the research might also affect info being collected. Often involves ppts recalling memories of relationships with parents. Memory is often distorted or incomplete. May not accurately remember early relationships.

- Social sensitivity. Internal working model suggests early attachment determines later relationships. This can lead to blaming mothers for children's later social or romantic difficulties. Raises ethical concerns as places excessive responsibility on mothers. Must be applied cautiously.

+ Practical applications. Understanding attachment patterns allows for early intervention. Example social skills training. Can help improve children's long-term relationship difficulties. Strengthens usefulness.

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