theoretical thinking exam

social theory

• Social theory is a set of ideas used to explain how society works, why people behave the way they do, and how social structures influence individual actions.

  Example: Using theory to explain why poverty exists beyond individual choices (e.g., economic systems, laws, education).

  Real life: Helps explain issues like inequality, crime, family patterns, and religion.

who are the core theorists?

• August Comte

• Émile Durkheim

• (Later theorists you may study: Marx, Weber)

They laid the foundation for sociology as a scientific discipline.

commonalities among early theorists

• Concerned with social order and change

• Interested in how modern society affects individuals

• Wanted to study society scientifically

• Influenced by major historical changes (Enlightenment & Industrial Revolution)

how does theory help make sense of social life?

• Theory helps us see patterns instead of isolated events and understand the social forces shaping behavior.

  Example: Instead of blaming individuals for unemployment, theory looks at economic systems.

how are theories different from religion and philosophy?

• Religion: Based on faith and belief

• Philosophy: Based on logic and reasoning

• Social theory: Based on observation, evidence, and systematic study of society

enlightenment

• A historical period emphasizing reason, science, and progress over tradition and superstition.

• Impact on sociology: Encouraged thinkers to study society scientifically.

counter-enlightenment

• Reaction against Enlightenment ideas; emphasized emotion, tradition, religion, and social bonds.

  Impact: Influenced thinkers like Durkheim to value social cohesion and morality.

industrial revolution

• Shift from agrarian to industrial society.

  Impact on sociology:

  • Urbanization

  • New class divisions

  • Breakdown of traditional communities

  • Rise in social problems (poverty, crime)

august comte

• Known as the founder of sociology

• Believed society could be studied scientifically

• Promoted positivism (using science to understand society)

• Wanted sociology to improve society

emile durkheim

• Established sociology as an academic discipline

• Focused on social order, solidarity, and integration

• Studied social facts and suicide scientifically

key theoretical distinctions

• Order vs. Action: Is society shaped by structure (order) or individual choice (action)?

• Rational vs. Nonrational: Are actions logical or driven by emotions/tradition?

• Collectivist vs. Individualist: Does society shape individuals, or vice versa?

Durkheim = order + collectivist

primary vs. secondary texts

• Primary texts: Original works by theorists (e.g., Suicide by Durkheim)

• Secondary texts: Interpretations or summaries by other scholars

Why both matter: Primary texts show original ideas; secondary texts help clarify and explain them.

abstract thinking

• Thinking about ideas and patterns beyond specific examples.

  Example: Understanding “social norms” instead of just specific rules.

  Why important: Helps explain invisible social forces.

theoretical typology

• A classification system that organizes ideas into categories.

  Example: Durkheim’s types of suicide.

  Why useful: Helps simplify complex social phenomena.

why read original works?

• Understand theorists in their own words

• Avoid oversimplification

• See how ideas developed

social facts ( durkhiem)

• Ways of thinking, acting, and feeling that exist outside the individual and exert control.

  Examples: Laws, norms, religion, language

social solidarity

• Found in traditional societies

• Based on similarity

• Shared beliefs and values

Example: Small rural communities

organic solidarity

• Found in modern societies

• Based on interdependence

• Specialized roles

Example: Modern cities and workplaces

division of labor

• The way work is divided into specialized roles.

  Relationship to solidarity:

  • Mechanical → low division of labor

  • Organic → high division of labor

collective conscience

• Shared beliefs and moral attitudes that bind society.

• Stronger in mechanical solidarity, weaker but still present in organic solidarity.

sui generis

• Society is greater than the sum of individuals and must be studied on its own level.

anomie

• A state of normlessness caused by rapid social change or lack of regulation.

  Example: Economic crash causing confusion and instability.

egosim

• Excessive individualism; weak social ties.

Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

Methodological importance:

• Used statistics

• Showed social causes of suicide

• Proved suicide is not just psychological

Theoretical importance:

• Demonstrated power of social facts

• Linked integration and regulation to behavior

types of suicide

• Egoistic: Too little social integration

• Altruistic: Too much social integration

• Anomic: Too little social regulation

• Fatalistic: Too much social regulation

social integration

• Degree to which individuals feel connected to society.

  • Low → egoistic suicide

  • High → altruistic suicide

social regulation

• Degree to which society controls behavior.

  • Low → anomic suicide

  • High → fatalistic suicide