CA 1 - FINAL TERM

Prenatal

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Starts at conception, continues through implantation in the uterine wall by the embryo, and ends at birth.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Starts at birth and continues to two years of age.

Early Childhood

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Starts at two years of age until six years of age.

Middle and Late Childhood

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Starts at six years of age and continues until the onset of puberty.

Adolescence

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Starts at the onset of puberty until 18.

Emerging Adulthood

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

18 to 25

Early Adulthood

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

25 to 40-45

Middle Adulthood

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

40-45 to 65

Late Adulthood

AGE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

65 onwards

Emerging Adulthood

*A period of development characterized by limited stability, as individuals are not yet fully adults but no longer children.

Early Adulthood

*Establishing committed partnerships, focusing on work responsibilities, and pursuing a clear career path with long-term stability.

Middle Adulthood

*The peak of life marked by established family with children, stable work and family responsibilities, and the beginning of noticeable aging.

Young-old

65 to 74 years old

Young-old

*A stage of later adulthood characterized by an active lifestyle, ability to move around independently, and relatively good health.

Old-old

75 to 84 years old

Old-old

*A stage of later adulthood characterized by noticeable physical decline and significant age-related changes.

Oldest-old

85 to 99 years old

Oldest-old

*A stage of later adulthood characterized by extreme physical decline, pronounced frailty, and high dependence on others for daily functioning.

Centenarians

100+ years old

Super Centenarians

110+ years old

Rooting reflex

Stroking the baby’s cheek or lower lip with a finger or nipple causes the head to turn, the mouth to open, and sucking movements to begin.

Sucking reflex

Happens when the roof of the baby’s mouth is touched.

Moro reflex

Also known as Startle reflex; when the baby is dropped or hears a loud noise, the infant extends the legs, arms, and fingers, arches the back, and draws back the head.

Righting reflex

Also known as Labyrinthine reflex; corrects the body’s orientation when displaced from its normal upright position, aligning the head and spinal cord.

Tongue-thrust reflex

Prevents from choking.

Withdrawal reflex

The body automatically withdraws a limb from a painful or harmful stimulus.

Tonic neck reflex

Also known as the Fencing reflex; infants turn their head to one side causes the arm and leg on that side to extend, while the opposite arm and leg flex, resembling the posture of a fencer preparing to duel. This helps in hand-eye coordination.

Types of Grasp Reflex

• Palmar Reflex

• Plantar Reflex

Palmar reflex

Touching the palm of the hand causes the fingers to close tightly around the object.

Plantar reflex

Pressing the sole of the infant’s foot (near the toes) causes the toes to curl downward and grasp.

Babinski reflex

Toe will fan out and curl when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe. This response is normal in infants up to about 2 years of age, but in older children and adults it indicates damage to the corticospinal tract.

Stepping reflex

Also known as Walking reflex; legs move in stepping like motions when feet touch a smooth surface.

Down Syndrome

Most common chromosomal abnormality, also called trisomy-21.

Down Syndrome

• Has Simian crease (single transverse crease across the palm)

• Flattened nose and face, and upward slanting eyes

• Hypotonia (floppiness/low muscle tone)

Klinefelter Syndrome

• Males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY

• Undeveloped testes

• Enlarged breasts

• Tall

Fragile X Syndrome

• Abnormality in the X chromosome

• Intellectual Disability

• Long and narrow face, and large ears

• Prevalent on male

• Physical features are only visible on males

Turner Syndrome

• In females, either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or one part of one X chromosome is deleted

• Short

• Difficulty in mathematics

• Verbal ability quite good

• Webbed neck

• Infertile

James Marcia

Developed the 4 identity statuses to explain adolescent identity formation.

Identity Diffusion

IDENTITY STATUS

Not take the first steps partly attitude to life, not taking normal responsibilities.

Identity Foreclosure

IDENTITY STATUS

Arrives at a committed identity without going through exploration.

Identity Moratorium

IDENTITY STATUS

Actively exploring new roles, but yet to make a commitment.

Identity Achievement

IDENTITY STATUS

Period of crisis, exploration of different alternative before committing to a consistent identity.

Sandwich Generation

Adults who have at least one parent age 65 or older and are either raising their own children or providing support for their grown children.

Kinkeeping

A person or persons who keep the family connected and who promote solidarity and continuity in the family.

Empty nest

Post-parental period refers to the time period when children are grown up and have left home.

Empty nest syndrome

Refers to great emotional distress experienced by parents, typically mothers, after children have left home.

Boomerang kids

Young adults who are returning after having lived independently outside the home.

Retirement

A process and not a one-time event.

Bridge jobs

Another job taken between career and full retirement, usually part-time

Encore careers

Work in a different field from the one in which they retired.

Remote pre‑retirement phase

ATCHLEY’S RETIREMENT STAGES

• Early planning stage, often years before retirement. Focus on saving, career decisions, and imagining future lifestyle.

• Fantasizing what one wants to do.

Immediate pre‑retirement phase

ATCHLEY’S RETIREMENT STAGES

• Final years or months before retirement. Active preparation, financial adjustments, and anticipation of the transition.

• Concrete plans are established.

Actual Retirement

ATCHLEY’S RETIREMENT STAGES

The formal exit from the workforce. Marks the beginning of retirement life.

Honeymoon Stage

ATCHLEY’S RETIREMENT STAGES

• Initial excitement and freedom. Retirees enjoy leisure, travel, and activities they postponed during work.

• Do things they could not do before.

Disenchantment Stage

ATCHLEY’S RETIREMENT STAGES

• After the honeymoon fades, some retirees feel boredom, disappointment, or loss of purpose.

• Emotional let-down

Reorientation Stage

ATCHLEY’S RETIREMENT STAGES

• Retirees reassess goals, explore new roles, and seek meaningful activities to regain satisfaction.

• Attempt to adjust

Grief

Normal process of reacting to a loss.

Bereavement

The period after a loss during which grief and mourning occurs.

Mourning

Process by which people adapt to a loss.

Complicated grief

TYPES OF GRIEF

• Atypical grief reactions

• Feelings if disbelief, preoccupation with the dead loved one, distressful memories, feeling unable to move on, yearning for the deceased

Disenfranchised grief

TYPES OF GRIEF

Grief that is not socially recognized.

Anticipatory grief

TYPES OF GRIEF

When death is expected.

Widowhood Mortality Effect

There is a higher risk of death on the widow or widower after the death of a spouse. If death is anticipated and they had more time to prepare, then the risk of death is lower.

Kubler-Ross Five Stages of Grief

• Denial

• Anger

• Bargaining

• Depression

• Acceptance

Dual Process Model of Grieving

Bereaved individuals move back and forth between grieving and preparing for life without their loved one.

Loss orientation

Feelings of loss and yearning for the deceased.

Restoration orientation

Reestablishing roles and activities they had prior the death of their loved one.

Reliability

Consistency, accuracy, dependability of the test results.

Classical Test Score Theory

Assumes that each person has a true score that would be obtained if there were no errors in measurement.

Classical Test Score Theory

A person’s observed score is made up of:

• True score → their actual ability or knowledge

• Error score → random influences like guessing or mistakes

Formula: Observed Score = True Score + Error

Systematic error

Is a consistent, predictable influence on test scores that can usually be identified and corrected.

Random error

Is an unpredictable fluctuation in the measurement process that is difficult to detect or remove, making it harder to estimate the true score.

Domain Sampling Method

Considers the problem created by using a limited number of items.

The more items, the higher the reliability.

What is the mantra on reliability?

Item Response Theory

Focuses on the range of item difficulty that helps assess an individual’s ability.

Individual’s ability

Refers to how skilled or knowledgeable an individual is.

Item difficulty

Refers to how hard a test question is, usually measured by the proportion of people who answered it correctly.

Item branching

A way of giving test questions that change depending on your previous answer, making the test adaptive.

Test-Retest Reliability

Refers to the consistency of test results when the same test is given to the same group of people at two different times.

Parallel Forms Reliability

Compares two equivalent forms of a test that measure the same attributes.

Internal Consistency

Refers to how well the items (questions) on a test measure the same idea or skill.

Split‑Half Reliability

• The test is split into two halves.

• Reliability is estimated by comparing scores from each half.

• Spearman-Brown formula is used to adjust reliability for the reduced number of items.

• Reliability may be lower because the test was cut in half.

Kuder-Richardson 20

• Used for dichotomous items (questions with only one correct answer, e.g., true/false).

• Assumes items vary in difficulty (easy, medium, hard).

• All tests naturally have varying item difficulty unless justified otherwise.

Kuder-Richardson 21

• Also for dichotomous items.

• Assumes all items have the same level of difficulty (must be justified).

• Simpler to compute but less precise.

Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha

• Used for polytomous items (questions with multiple possible answers, not just right/wrong).

• Commonly applied to Likert‑scale items.

• Estimates how consistently items measure the same construct when responses can vary in degree.

Interrater Reliability

Consistency of judges/raters evaluating the same behavior.

Validity

We measure if the test is measuring what it purports to measure.

Criterion Validity

How well it corresponds to a particular criterion.

Criterion Test

• A well‑established psychological test that is already known to measure the construct correctly.

• Used as a benchmark when developing new tests (e.g., comparing a new intelligence test to an existing one).

• If both tests give similar results, it shows they measure the same thing.

Criterion Data

Any type of information or data that is easily accessible and can serve as a standard for comparison.

Predictive Validity

• Refers to how well a test can forecast future performance or outcomes.

• There is a time gap between taking the test and observing the results.

• Using entrance exam scores to predict a student’s GPA in their fourth year.

Concurrent Validity

• Refers to how well a test’s results agree with a criterion test or criterion data that measure the same construct at the same time.

• Time elapsed is not important.

• Shows that the test and the criterion are related and produce similar results.

Content Validity

• Adequacy of representation of the conceptual domain the test is designed to cover.

• Experts judge the validity of test items.

Construct Validity

• Refers to how well a test truly measures the abstract concept it claims to measure.

• Needed when measuring intangible traits (e.g., intelligence, anxiety, motivation).

• Strongly based on theoretical frameworks and psychological models.

• Harder to establish because it requires proof that the theory holds through research and evidence

Convergent Validity

• Refers to how well your test is related to an existing theory or construct.

• Shows that your test is measuring the same concept as other established measures.

• If two tests measure the same construct, their results should be strongly related.

Divergent Validity

• Refers to how well your test is not related to a different construct.

• Proves that your test is measuring something unique, not overlapping with unrelated traits.

• If two constructs are theoretically different, your test should not correlate with measures of the other.

Face Validity

• Refers to whether a test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure, just by looking at it.

• It’s about appearance and impression, not statistical proof.

Utility

• Practicality or usefulness of the test.

• Not a psychometric property.

• It’s relative and subjective depending on situation or people.

A test can be reliable but not valid, but a test cannot be valid unless it’s reliable

What is the mantra of psychometric properties?

at least 0.70+ reliability

What is the minimum reliability standard for basic research?