MMW 11 Midterm

Australopithecus

a genus of extinct hominins that lived in Africa between approximately 4.18 and 2 million years ago, known for a mix of ape-like and human-like traits. They were bipedal (walked on two legs), had small brains, large jaws, and large molars with thick enamel, but they also had longer arms for climbing

Homo Habilis

Larger brain size, bigger than australopithecus but smaller than homo erectus, first use of stone tools, improved dexterity and developed grip abilities (opposable thumbs)

Homo Erectus

1.8 mya - large brains, bipedal, eye-hand coordination, less hair and darker skin, caring for young and family dynamics, use of fire, early migrations from environmental change out of Africa, lose estrus, wider pelvis

Homo Sapiens

Developed language, migrated because Africa temperature dropped (population died)

Multi-regionalism vs. Out of Africa debate

Multi-regional theory proposes modern humans evolved simultaneously in different parts of the world from local archaic human populations (like Homo erectus), with gene flow between them

Out of Africa (OOA) theory suggests that modern humans evolved first in Africa and then migrated out, replacing earlier hominins like Neanderthals, with limited interbreeding

Mitochondrial Eve

embryos inherit the mother's mitochondrial DNA therefore, the entire mitochondria --> the most recent common matrilineal (mother-to-mother) ancestor of all living humans therefore tracing the genetic lineage, this supports Out of Africa theory

Mt. Toba and Global Volcanic Winter

The Toba supereruption (74,000 years ago) is theorized to have caused a global volcanic winter by blocking sunlight with ash and sulfur dioxide, leading to a dramatic drop in global temperatures for several years

Compromise between bipedalism and brain size

takes longer for the child to reach a mature state also childbirth is more dangerous for mothers/ smaller pelvis = more ability to walk and wider pelvis = increase brain size (giving birth)

Delayed maturation -- social implications

Infants were born with smaller brains leading to a more extended infancy period, meaning the parents would spend more time with the children, leading to a shit to a nuclear familial structure

Altricial vs. precocial species

Articial - mammal-like care, more infant dependency and time to care for young

Precocial species -> born almost fully mature

Elimination of female estrus in hominids

less violence when mating and more bonding and familial relationships built

Impact of cooked food

easier to digest and the amount of nutrient intake increase, use of fire -> increased brain size

Social Adaptations (time, restraint, etc.)

Changes:

-Extended Juvenile Period: Learning & Parental Care, Post-Reproductive Survival, Resource Management and Planning

-Reduced Inter-Birth Interval

-Restraint-Related Adaptations: Emotional and Behavioral Control (Inhibit Aggression, Delay Gratification, Cooperation)

Persistence of the Acheulean hand-axe

long duration (over 1.5 million years) and its global presence across Africa, Asia, and Europe. This persistence is attributed to its versatility as a multi-purpose tool for tasks like butchering meat, digging, and cutting, which made it an adaptive and successful technology. The handaxe's longevity was likely also influenced by cultural conservatism, a preference for this established technology over new innovations

Barter vs. reciprocity

Barter -> exchange invented, trading different things at the same time, not always equal but what they want -> more potential -> influence specialization key human breakthrough, can't kill each other bc need diff things, figure out concept of value -> measuring before (want)

Reciprocity -> trading the same thing at different times or trading items of the same value

catallaxy effect of bartering

the emergence of a "spontaneous order" in a free economy where individuals' self-interested actions, motivated by bartering and the pursuit of utility, lead to the coordination of a complex system without central planning From notes: ever expanding possibility of division of labor 1. Dexterity = skill w/ task 2. Efficiency = practice 3. Specialization = improving

Gendered division of labor debate

debate on gendered division of labor in early humans challenges the traditional view of men as exclusive hunters and women as gatherers, with recent research suggesting greater flexibility and more shared activities. While the strict "Man the Hunter" model has been influential, modern evidence points to women also participating in hunting, along with men engaging in tasks like gathering and childcare

Ideal population density for hunter-gatherers

1 to 0.1 --> hence the resort to infanticide bc there wasn't enough resources to go around or it was just impossible to care for an extra child

Role of infanticide

-Population control mechanism

-disposed of weak or malformed infants, preventing resource strain, and potentially contributing to the evolution of traits like reduced reactive aggression through a form of "self-domestication"

Shift to horticulture 9000 B.C.E.

the step before large scale agriculture, it is essentially small scale farming that is typically temporary, also characterized by using simple tools like hoes

Advent of agriculture 6000 B.C.E.

plow (larger scale agriculture) increase population -> increase farmers > hunter/gather

"Co-dependent Domestication"

the coevolutionary relationship b/w humans and other species --> mutual dependence --> helped population growth bc amount of food supply increase

Relationship with transhumant herders

a mix of cooperation and conflict --> Historically, relationships were often cooperative, involving trade, shared grazing rights, and mutual benefits like manuring fields. However, pressures like population growth, climate change, and reduced resources can intensify competition for resources, leading to conflict over land and water.

Why urbanization?

agricultural surpluses that created a food supply beyond subsistence farming, enabling the growth of specialized labor and trade --> Cities grew as population centers and hubs for commerce and administration, supported by a food surplus that no longer required everyone to be a farmer

Irrigation management?

it enabled agricultural surplus through consistent crop growth, supported population growth, and fostered societal development --> allowed communities to thrive in arid regions by controlling water for crops, providing a reliable food supply for a non-farming population of crafters, priests, and government workers

Security needs?

Security needs in the Early Dynastic period were met through a combination of natural defenses, fortified cities, sophisticated tomb security, and early military organization --> shift to urbanism was partly driven by the need for protection within fortified walls, while natural barriers like deserts and the Nile River provided a first line of defense for Egypt as a whole

Religious center?

numerous city-states in Mesopotamia functioned as significant religious centers, each typically dedicated to a specific patron deity. The most prominent were:

- Nippur

- Eridu

- Uruk

- Ur

- Lagash (and Girsu)

- Kish

- Adab

e.g. of Çatal Huyuk

Examples of finds from Çatalhöyük include intricately decorated houses with roof access, plastered walls featuring vibrant murals of hunting or volcanic scenes, and burial sites under the sleeping platforms

Early Dynastic Period (3000-2000 B.C.E.)

refers to a transformative time in both Mesopotamia and Egypt, marked by the formation of early city-states and unified kingdoms, the development of writing, and the establishment of sophisticated political and religious structures

Assembly of elders

Assembly of elders, known as the puhrum or šibutum, played a significant role in city governance, though its exact function varied over time. Some evidence suggests that in this era, cities were sometimes ruled by these assemblies, especially when a single king's power was not yet fully consolidated. The assembly could appoint a leader, or Lugal, for a limited time, especially in times of war --> early forms of oligarchy

Emergence of the "lugal"

term lugal (meaning "big man") emerged during the Early Dynastic period (c. 2900-2350 B.C.) to denote a secular ruler, distinguishing them from earlier priest-kings (ensi) --> shift reflected a more stratified hierarchical society w rulers responsible for military leadership, justice, and temple upkeep

Social impact of "surplus" and inheritance

Origin of Gender Stratification -> typical traditional roles, impact of surplus as"inheritable wealth" -> question of who gets surplus when one dies? Is it really the man's kid? transition to more restrictions on women.

Social and gender stratification

Patriarchy as another unfortunate layer of "civilization" -> new rules and taboos affecting family and assuring female chastity (insecurity and doubt about offspring -> control women)

Mesopotamia

spans from early agriculture to powerful empires like the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, and is marked by groundbreaking inventions such as the wheel, writing (cuneiform), and the first cities --> home of the earliest urban civilations

Tigris-euphrates

the two rivers that basically outlined the Mesopotamia region

Cuneiform

One of the earliest forms of documentation and writing, used in Mesopotamia

Epic of Creation (Enuma Elish)

Babylonian creation epic, which tells the story of the god Marduk becoming the supreme deity by defeating the chaotic sea goddess Tiamat. After creating the world from Tiamat's body, Marduk establishes cosmic order, founds the city of Babylon, and creates humankind from the blood of one of Tiamat's defeated supporters, Kingu, to serve the other gods

Marduk's defeat of Tiamat

After incapacitating her with the Evil Wind, he killed her with an arrow and split her body in half to form the heavens and the earth

Shift to permanent, absolute power

occurred through the gradual centralization of authority from temple priests to warrior-kings, driven by factors like the need for large-scale irrigation projects, increased local warfare, and military --expansion --> a need for more centralized authority grew. The need to organize labor for large-scale irrigation projects and to resolve disputes between settlements led to the transfer of power from religious to secular rulers

Patron God of Babylon

Marduk was the "king of the gods"

King as "shepard" of the people

In ancient Mesopotamia, the king was called a "shepherd" to represent his duty to protect, provide for, and lead his people, much like a shepherd tends to a flock. This metaphor emphasized that the king was the shepherd of his city or empire, responsible for ensuring justice, order, and the welfare of his people, who were viewed as his "sheep". This theme is seen in ancient texts and art, with rulers like Gilgamesh and Hammurabi being called "shepherds" and even wearing stylized shepherd hats on their crowns

Gilgamesh

a legendary semi-divine king of the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk, described as two-thirds god and one-third man. His significance lies in his role as the protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest works of literature, which explores universal themes of friendship, mortality, and the search for meaning. The epic documents Gilgamesh's transformation from an oppressive ruler into a wiser king who, after failing to achieve immortality, finds a form of lasting legacy in his works for the city.

Uruk

an ancient Sumerian city in modern-day Iraq, considered the world's first true city and a major center of Mesopotamian civilization. It is famous for the legendary King Gilgamesh and is credited as the birthplace of writing and monumental architecture, including ziggurats. At its peak around 2900 BCE, Uruk had a population of over 50,000 people and was the largest city in the world.

Loss of privacy and liberty

Loss of privacy and liberty mainly effected women who were heavily restricted in all aspects of civilization; socioeconomic status was more significant in society (larger hierachies) --> patriarchy

Quest for immortality

Gilgamesh slays monster Humbaba, kills the Bull of Heaven, spurns the goddess of Ishtal's advances

Symbolism of Enkidu

Enkidu symbolizes the wild, untamed natural world and the shift from primal life to civilization. He serves as Gilgamesh's counterpoint, representing the natural side of humanity, and their friendship highlights the importance of companionship for personal growth. His death is a pivotal symbol of human mortality and the inevitable loss that forces Gilgamesh into an existential quest for immortality.

Siduri's counsel

Siduri's counsel is significant as it represents a pivotal moment of wisdom in The Epic of Gilgamesh, urging the hero to abandon his quest for immortality and embrace the joys of mortal life. Her advice emphasizes that since death is inevitable for all humans, one should live a full life by enjoying simple pleasures like good food, family, and celebration. This message provides a crucial counterpoint to Gilgamesh's obsession and helps him begin to accept his mortality, ultimately guiding him towards a more meaningful, present-focused existence.

Utnapishtim's story of the flood

tells how the god Ea secretly warned Utnapishtim of the gods' plan to send a catastrophic flood to destroy humanity. Utnapishtim built a massive ship, which carried his family, craftsmen, and the "seed of all living things" to survive the deluge. After the flood, the gods regretted their actions, and Utnapishtim and his wife were granted immortality for their survival and for performing a sacrifice.

Purpose and logic of Hammurabi's code

The purpose of Hammurabi's Code was to establish a single, written set of laws to unify Babylonian society, ensure justice, and protect the weak from the strong. Its logic was based on the principle of lex talionis ("an eye for an eye") for many crimes, although punishments were also adjusted based on social status. The code aimed to replace arbitrary rule with a predictable and consistent legal framework, making justice public and providing a foundation for future legal systems.

Ancient Israel

Ancient Israel was a civilization in the southern Levant that emerged around 1000 BCE and was known for its unique monotheistic religion, which centered on the worship of Yahweh

TaNaKh (Torah, Nebi'im, Kethub'im)

1. Torah = Laws, basic story of people and laws to guide the living

2. Nebi'im = Prophets, a critical commentary on life that the Torah gives

3. Kethub'im = Writings, diverse and open-ended of worship and festive celebrations -> "wisdom reflected"

Five Books of the Torah or Pentateuch

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy

Documentary Hypothesis

Theory that the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (the Torah or Pentateuch) are a compilation of four independent sources: J (Yahwist), E (Elohist), D (Deuteronomist), and P (Priestly)

Yaweh vs Elohim

J (Yaweh) God is a more human-like, intimate entity

E (Elohim) - presented as a transcendent, detached overseer

Book of Genesis—2 versions of Creation

J version - Adam is created first from dust and Eve is created as his partner/helper, more concerned with the order of creation

E version - Adam and Eve are created at the same time

Earliest covenant with Noah

After the flood, God makes a promise to Noah that he will never destroy the planet by flooding. A rainbow symbolizes this promise.

-Divine obligations to be patient with humans and preserve order of creation

-Human obligations to populate the planet

Henotheism as historical backdrop

One primary supreme God while acknowleding the existance of other Gods -- middle ground between polytheism and monotheism

-Israelites initially practiced Henotheism before shifting to Monotheism

Ethical Monotheism

Transgenerational consequences of ones actions. Served as a source of legitimacy for political and religious authority

Abram -> Abraham

Calling of Abram --> Abraham was a conversation with God that solidified his position as a biblical figure/prophet ("promoted")

Historical context of migration

Ancient Israelites moved from Mesopotamia to Canaan (Abraham's journey) beause they believed God had dedicated that land to them. Migration shaped their identity, land claims, and relationship with God, and shows how historical movements influenced their social and religious life.

Cultural context of personal attributes

Highlights how culture shaped moral lessons and behavior expectations. Ancient Israel valued traits like faithfulness, obedience, hospitality, and courage. Stories of figures like Abraham, Joseph, and Moses reflect these ideal personal qualities.

Sarai → Sarah, mother of Isaac

Sarai's name changes to Sara when she gives birth to Isaac, fulfilling God's covenant promise. This signifies that she will be the mother of nations and kings.

Choice of Rebekah as Isaac's wife

Rebekah was chosen because God guided the servant to her, she showed good character, and she was part of Abraham's family.

Moses as Leader

Moses was humble, delegated tasks, showed courage and compassion, and had unwavering faith in God. He led the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt, a feat that required him to stand against Pharaoh, manage a constantly complaining people, and guide them through the wilderness.

Symbolic role of Pharaoh

The pharaoh represents oppression due to the fact that he kept Israelites as slaves. He was an obstacle for Moses and God's plan. He symbolizes oppresion and pride

Shift to Kingship

Hunters had leadership skills so they were automatically elected as kings by the assembly of elders. This led to the birth of the human ego, as the hunters experienced a surge of power.

Prophet Samuel

Anointed Saul and David as kings, guiding Israel according to God's will

King Saul and his transgressions

Saul disobeyed God multiple times -- He spared the Amalekite king despite God's command, he focused too much on self-importance, and he tried to kill David after God rejected him as king. This caused the divine favour to turn to David

King David

Anointing David -> King because good with on account of his humility and Saul's downfall due to ego, the David and Goliath story. Accomplishments as King-> evidence of a more centralized control and administrative complex, development of a professional army, marriage diplomacy. Portrayed as favored by God, even with his sins like sleeping with Bathsheba. (rustic modern charm)

Respect for the House of Saul

David avoided disrespecting Saul because:

-Saul was at one point anointed by God

-Respect for saul after he died

-David was friends with Jonathan, Saul's friend

Dual priesthood in Jerusalem & Abithar and Zadok

Two chief priests in Jerusalem-North

- Abiathar - descendant of Moses-South

- Zadok - descendant of Aaron

Bathsheba and Uriah

Bethsheba: David had an affair with her and got pregnant, giving birth to Solomon
Uriah: Bethsheba's husband who was fighting in the army when the affair happened. David had Uriah come back to Bethsheba to cover up the affair before sending him out on the front lines to die.

Deuteronomist view of history and trans-generational retribution

Inherited pushiment or good deeds

-Ex. David and Solomon. Although Solomon disobeyed God, David's good deeds allowed him to avoid punishment

Solomon

Solomon: David and Bethsheba's son

-Had foreign wives for marriage diplomacy and built shrines for other Gods

-Because of David's good deeds, Solomon was not punished as severely

How Solomon gained the throne

became king after david died, Bathsheba made sure that Solomon was to be King when David was dying

Purging of Solomon's rivals (Adonijah, Joab)

Solomon killed Adonijah and Joab, members of his own tribe.

Building temple of Jerusalem

Solomon built the temple, set up taxes and conscripted labor from other tribes to finish temple for God -> didn't setup good relations with the other tribes

12 Administrative Districts

12 tribes of Israel, Judah only exempted

Treaty with King Hiram of Tyre

Solomon gave large quantities of wheat and olive oil to King Hiram in exchange for resources and labor to build the temple for God

Marriage diplomacy and worship

Solomon had multiple polytheist foreign wives and built shrines for other Gods, disobeying God.

Divided Kingdom

Period of division (933-722), 10 tribes of Israel in the North ruled by Jeroboam, 2 tribes in the South: Judah and Simeon

Rehoboam of Judah

First kingdom of Judah after North and South were divided

Jeroboam of Israel

Ruled the 10 tribes of the North

Fall of Israel 722

Israel (the 10 tribes of the north) fell to the assyrians in 722 BCE, so there was an influx of refugees into Judah (southern kingdom)

Synthesis of JE source—likely time period

J and E sources consolidated after the fall of Israel in 722 to the Assyrians

King Josiah's reforms in 622

series of a political and spiritual changes after a spiritual “awakening” attributed to the discovery of a “lost” sacred book called Deuteronomy

Agenda of Deuteronomy

Belief in divine justice and retribution

New ethical code

The ethical code of the dueteronomists was renewed after the Covenant was renewed, highlighting a new vision of divine justice and retribution. It emphasized a personal and intimate connection with God, taking responsibility, and a natural inclination to believe in God rather than a belief in God that stemmed from teachings.

Second Age of Moses

Moses's age from 40-80 yrs old where he was exiled to Midian and became a shepard. There, God spoke to him from a burning bush and told him to return to Egypt to lead the Israelites out of slavery.

Babylonian Exile of 597

Babylonian army conquered Jerusalem. The kingdom of Judah rebelled against Babylonian rule, and babylonians deporting Israelites in Judah to Babylon

Job's integrity of faith

Faith based on integrity, not self-deslusion, genuine faith which compels believers to ask questions on if we innately feel virtuous or if that's what our faith teaches us. His integrity teaches us that integrity and faith can coexist and be synonymous

Question of divine justice

Job questioned God's divine justice, as he had the perspective that pious people would never be punished. God responds by explaining how his power exceeds the understanding of the human mind.

Meaning of God's response

It reconciles "enigmatic suffering" with the idea of a benevolent, merciful God which challenges the Deuteronomist logic of divine justice.

Role of Eli'phaz, Bildad, Zophar

They make Job question himself, accusing him of sin, and giving him misguided advice to repent to God.

Xia "Dynasty" (Hsia)

First dynasty in China. Legends credit Yu the Great with stopping a flood and establishing rule until the Shang Dynasty overthrew him.

"Erlitou" or Longshan culture's key features

Longshan culture --> Black Pottery Culture

Shang Dynasty

Established royal ritual center on Huan River banks, first to have writing on oracle bones

Oracle Bones

Pieces of ox scapula and turtle shells used in pyromancy (art of divination through burning/fire)

Shamanism

Oracle bones, four classes of spirits ("Di" or "Supreme spirit"), Kings as head shamans, ethical conscience rooted not in covenant with some God, accountability to ancestors

Monopoly over bronze metallurgy

Bronze Age, bronze helped increase military strength, increase in trade of bronze