Perception and Individual Decision Making

Vocabulary flashcards covering major terms related to perception, social perception, attribution, decision-making biases, and ethical criteria discussed in the lecture.

Perception

The cognitive process by which individuals organize and interpret sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment.

Subjective Perception

The idea that perception varies from person to person; each individual constructs a personal understanding of reality.

Stimuli

Incoming information from the environment (physical, social, organizational) that initiates the perceptual process.

Attention (Perceptual)

The selection stage of perception where certain stimuli are noticed while others are screened out.

Recognition

The stage in perception where selected stimuli are identified and categorized before being translated into behavior.

Translation (Perception)

The step in which recognized stimuli are converted into meaningful responses or actions.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

The tendency for a person’s expectations about another to evoke behavior that confirms those expectations.

Pygmalion Effect

A positive self-fulfilling prophecy in which high expectations lead to improved performance.

Golem Effect

A negative self-fulfilling prophecy in which low expectations lead to poorer performance.

Gestalt Principles

Psychological rules describing how humans naturally organize visual stimuli into unified wholes (e.g., continuity, closure).

Continuity (Gestalt)

The tendency to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than abrupt changes; people follow lines or curves.

Closure (Gestalt)

The mind’s inclination to fill in missing information so an incomplete figure is seen as whole.

Similarity (Gestalt)

Objects that resemble each other (color, shape, texture) are perceived as part of the same group.

Pragnanz / Good Figure

The principle that people perceive objects in the simplest, most stable forms possible.

Figure-Ground

The ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surrounding background (ground).

Social Perception

The process of integrating information about others to form accurate understandings of them.

Attribution

The act of assigning causes to people’s behavior, whether internal traits or external situations.

Attribution Theory

A framework explaining how observers decide whether behavior is internally or externally caused.

Covariation Model

Harold Kelley’s attribution model using consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency to judge causes of behavior.

Distinctiveness

Whether an individual behaves differently in different situations; high distinctiveness suggests external cause.

Consensus

The degree to which others behave similarly in the same situation; high consensus points to external cause.

Consistency

Whether the person behaves the same way over time in similar situations; high consistency signals internal cause.

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior by internal characteristics such as personality or effort.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior by external factors beyond the person’s control.

Selective Perception

The perceptual shortcut of focusing on aspects that stand out while ignoring other information.

Halo Effect

The bias of forming an overall positive impression of someone based on a single favorable trait.

Horn Effect

The bias of forming an overall negative impression of someone based on one undesirable trait.

Contrast Effect

Judging a person’s characteristics by comparing them with others recently encountered who rank high or low.

Stereotyping

Assigning attributes to someone purely on the basis of group membership.

Rational Decision-Making Model

A logical, step-by-step approach to choosing the optimal solution based on complete, objective information.

Bounded Rationality

Decision making limited by limited information, time, and cognitive capacity, leading people to simplify problems.

Satisficing

Selecting the first acceptable option rather than the optimal one due to bounded rationality.

Intuitive Decision Making

An unconscious process that relies on distilled experience rather than systematic analysis.

Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to overestimate one’s own abilities or the accuracy of one’s predictions.

Anchoring Bias

Relying heavily on an initial piece of information (the anchor) when making subsequent judgments.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking and valuing information that supports existing beliefs while discounting contradictory evidence.

Availability Bias

Basing judgments on information most readily available or recent in memory.

Randomness Error

Believing random events are related or can be predicted, leading to faulty decisions.

Prospect Theory / Risk Aversion

Preference for certain smaller gains over larger uncertain ones and for risky options to avoid losses.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome is known, that it was predictable all along.

Ethical Decision Criteria

Standards (utilitarianism, rights, justice) used to evaluate the moral correctness of decisions.

Utilitarianism

An ethical approach focusing on decisions that produce the greatest good for the greatest number.

Rights Approach

An ethical perspective emphasizing consistency with fundamental liberties and individual entitlements.

Justice Approach

An ethical stance that calls for fair and impartial enforcement of rules to distribute benefits and costs equitably.

Lying (Ethical Challenge)

Providing false information, which undermines sound decision making and ethical conduct.

Bias Mitigation Strategies

Techniques such as education, questioning, collaboration, blind review, and checklists to reduce cognitive biases.