Key Terms

Agrarian Republic

A political vision emphasizing an economy based on independent farmers and land ownership as the foundation of civic virtue.

Meritocracy

A system where individuals gain power or success based on ability and talent rather than social status or wealth.

Neocolonialism

The indirect control of developing countries by powerful nations through economic or cultural influence instead of direct rule.

1787 Philadelphia Convention

The meeting where delegates drafted the U.S. Constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation.

New Jersey Plan

A proposal at the Constitutional Convention favoring equal representation for all states in Congress.

Virginia Plan

A proposal calling for representation based on state population in a bicameral legislature.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. constitution that created a weak central government and strong state sovereignty.

Great Compromise

The agreement creating a bicameral Congress with proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate.

Three-Fifths Compromise

A constitutional agreement counting enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation.

Federalism

A political system dividing power between a national government and regional (state) governments.

Federalists / Anti-Federalist

Groups that respectively supported or opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution.

Impressment

The British practice of seizing American sailors and forcing them into naval service.

Search and Seizure

The process by which authorities inspect and take property, regulated under the Fourth Amendment.

Chesapeake Incident

A 1807 naval conflict where a British ship attacked the U.S.S. Chesapeake, inflaming tensions before the War of 1812.

War of 1812

A conflict between the United States and Britain over trade restrictions, impressment, and frontier expansion.

Tecumseh

A Shawnee leader who sought to unite Native tribes against U.S. expansion.

Treaty of Ghent

The 1814 agreement ending the War of 1812 and restoring prewar boundaries.

Rush-Bagot Treaty

An 1817 U.S.-British treaty limiting naval armaments on the Great Lakes.

Shay’s Rebellion

A 1786–1787 uprising by Massachusetts farmers protesting economic injustices and high taxes.

Responsible Government

A political system where the executive branch must have the support of an elected legislature.

Caudillos

Charismatic military or political leaders who dominated Latin American nations in the 19th century.

Cabildo

A municipal council or town government in colonial Spanish America.

Bernardino Rivadavia

The first president of Argentina, known for liberal reforms and modernization efforts.

Gauchos

Skilled horsemen of the South American pampas, symbolizing rural independence and national identity.

Juan Manuel de Rosas

An authoritarian Argentine ruler who centralized power and maintained order through fear and loyalty.

Tulio Halperín Donghi

An Argentine historian known for analyzing Latin America’s transition from colony to republic.

Federica Morelli

A historian specializing in Latin American independence and the role of citizenship and rights.

Arturo Taracena

A Guatemalan historian recognized for studies on Central American nationalism and liberal reforms.

Jurandir Malerba

A Brazilian historian who studies 19th-century Latin American politics and identity.

José Ramos Mejía

An Argentine intellectual who examined national psychology and leadership in historical figures.

Winderly Pinho

A modern Latin American scholar studying race, identity, and power structures.

Countess de Barral

A Brazilian noblewoman who corresponded with abolitionist figures, symbolizing elite engagement with reform.

Diego Portales

A Chilean statesman who established a strong centralized conservative government after independence.

Valentín Gómez Farías

A Mexican liberal reformer and interim president advocating secular education and reduced Church power.

Clinton Rossiter

An American political scientist known for his writings on the U.S. Constitution and Federalist thought.

Jared Diamond

A geographer and author who argues that geography largely determines societal development.

Geographic Determinism

The theory that the physical environment shapes human societies and outcomes.

Acemoglu and Robinson

Economists who proposed that political institutions drive national prosperity or failure.

Extractive Institutions

Systems that concentrate power and wealth in the hands of a few, limiting economic growth.

Inclusive Institutions

Systems that encourage participation, innovation, and shared prosperity.

Conquistador

A Spanish conqueror of the Americas during the 16th century.

Casta System

A racial hierarchy in colonial Latin America classifying people by ancestry and skin color.

Peninsulares

Spaniards born in Spain who held top positions in colonial society.

Creoles

People of European descent born in the Americas, often leaders in independence movements.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.

Mulattos

People of mixed European and African ancestry.

Carlos Slim

A Mexican billionaire known for his dominance in telecommunications and as one of the world’s richest men.

Joint-Stock Company

A business structure that allows investors to pool capital and share profits and losses.

Hernán Cortés

The Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire.

Francisco Pizarro

The Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru.

Juan Díaz de Solís

A Spanish explorer credited with discovering the Río de la Plata estuary.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1607 in Virginia.

Powhatan

The leader of a powerful Native American confederacy in Virginia during the Jamestown period.

Saint-Domingue Hierarchy

The rigid class structure in colonial Haiti dividing whites, free people of color, and enslaved Africans.

Juntas

Local governing councils formed in Spanish America during the Napoleonic Wars.

Fundamental Constitution of Carolina

A 1669 colonial charter establishing a hierarchical social system in Carolina.

House of Burgesses

The first elected legislative assembly in colonial America, established in Virginia in 1619.

Laws Divine, Moral, and Martial

Strict regulations imposed on Jamestown settlers to enforce discipline and order.

Encomienda

A Spanish labor system granting colonists control over Indigenous labor in exchange for Christianization.

Mita

A colonial labor draft in which Indigenous people were required to work for a set period, especially in mines.

Repartimiento de Mercancías

The forced sale of goods to Indigenous populations by colonial officials.

Trajin

The transport or movement of goods and people, often referring to trade or labor systems in colonial Latin America.

Reducciones

Settlements created by Spanish missionaries to relocate Indigenous peoples.

Amparo

A legal protection in Latin American law safeguarding individual rights against government abuse.

Cadiz Constitution / Constitution of 1812

A liberal Spanish constitution establishing constitutional monarchy and limited suffrage.

First Haitian Congress

The assembly of leaders that organized Haiti’s independence efforts from France.

War of Knives

A violent civil war in Haiti between factions led by Toussaint Louverture and André Rigaud.

Toussaint Louverture

The former enslaved leader who guided the Haitian Revolution and abolished slavery.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

Haitian revolutionary who declared independence in 1804 and became Haiti’s first ruler.

French Bourbons

The royal dynasty restored to power in France after Napoleon’s fall.

Mask of Ferdinand

The claim by Spanish American revolutionaries to act in the name of the imprisoned King Ferdinand VII.

Father Miguel Hidalgo

The Mexican priest who initiated the War of Independence with his 1810 Grito de Dolores.

Grito de Dolores

Hidalgo’s famous call for rebellion against Spanish rule in Mexico.

Father José Morelos

A Mexican revolutionary priest who continued Hidalgo’s fight and drafted early constitutions.

War of Attrition

A prolonged conflict aimed at wearing down the enemy through continuous losses.

Constitutional Decree for the Liberation of Mexico

A document issued by Morelos establishing Mexico’s independence goals.

Dual Monarchy

A form of government where two kingdoms are ruled by the same monarch but remain separate states.

Agustín Iturbide

A Mexican general who declared independence and briefly ruled as Emperor of Mexico.

Plan de Iguala

A declaration ensuring Mexico’s independence, Catholicism, and equality between social classes.

Top-Down Revolution

A revolution led by elites or government officials rather than the general population.

Bottom-Up Revolution

A revolution initiated by the masses or lower social classes.

Dom João

The Portuguese king who moved his court to Brazil during the Napoleonic Wars.

Dom Pedro

The son of Dom João who declared Brazil’s independence and became its first emperor.

Cry of Ipiranga

Dom Pedro’s 1822 proclamation of Brazil’s independence.

Simón Bolívar

A Venezuelan revolutionary leader who liberated much of South America from Spanish rule.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 assembly that produced the U.S. Constitution.

Hartford Convention

The Hartford Convention was

a meeting of New England Federalists in December 1814 to protest policies of the U.S. government during theWar of 1812

Compact Theory

The belief that the U.S. Constitution is a compact among states, giving them the right to judge federal actions

War Hawks

Members of Congress who advocated for war with Britain leading up to 1812.

Power of the Purse

The authority of Congress to control government spending and taxation.

Executive Privilege

The president has the right to withhold information from Congress or the courts for national security.

Debt Peonage

A system where workers are tied to their employers through debt they cannot repay.

Historiography

The study of how history is written and the interpretations of past events.

Historical Context

The time, place, and circumstances surrounding an event or source.

Caudillo

A singular strongman ruler in Latin America combining military power with populist leadership.

Classical Liberalism

An ideology advocating individual rights, limited government, and free markets.

Classical Conservatism

A belief in preserving traditional institutions, social hierarchy, and gradual change.

Alien and Sedition Acts

1798 laws restricting criticism of the government and tightening immigration rules.

Embargo

A government order restricting trade with foreign nations.

Militarism

The belief in maintaining strong armed forces and using them aggressively to defend or promote interests.