Paleolithic Era

Paleolithic Era

• Old Stone Age (before 10,000 BCE)

• Humans lived as hunter-gatherers

• Used simple stone tools and fire

• No farming or permanent settlements

Pastoral Society

• Depended on herding animals instead of crops

• Nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle

• Spread technology and ideas through trade

• Common in Central Asia and Africa

Chiefdom

• Led by chiefs who gained power by kinship and respect

• Had some social hierarchy

• Practiced limited agriculture and trade

• Common before the rise of full states

Patriarchy

• Men held main power in society

• Women had fewer rights and public roles

• Rooted in early agricultural societies

• Present in most ancient civilizations

Hinduism

• One of the world’s oldest religions, originating in India

• Believes in Brahman, the one ultimate reality or spirit

• Worships many gods as different forms of Brahman (not separate gods)

• Teaches karma, dharma, reincarnation, and the goal of moksha (liberation)

Upanishads

• Philosophical Hindu writings (800–400 BCE)

• Teach about Atman (soul) and Brahman (universal spirit)

• Focus on meditation and inner knowledge

• Shifted religion toward spiritual understanding

Siddhartha Gautama

• Known as the Buddha (“Enlightened One”)

• Founded Buddhism in India (5th century BCE)

• Taught Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path

• Rejected the Hindu caste system

Theravada Buddhism

• Oldest branch of Buddhism (“Teaching of the Elders”)

• Focus on meditation and individual enlightenment

• Dominant in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

• Buddha seen as a wise teacher, not a god

Mahayana Buddhism

• More popular and flexible form of Buddhism

• Spread to China, Korea, and Japan

• Believed in Bodhisattvas—enlightened beings helping others

• Viewed Buddha as divine

Bhakti Movement

• Devotional Hindu movement (600s–1600s CE)

• Focused on personal love for one god

• Rejected caste and rituals

• Inspired unity among Hindus and Muslims in India

Confucianism

• Founded by Confucius in China (500s BCE)

• Focused on respect, morality, and education

• Promoted filial piety (respect for parents)

• Became basis of Chinese government exams

Han Dynasty

• Chinese dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)

• Golden Age of culture, science, and expansion

• Silk Road trade began

• Civil service exams established

Daoism

• Chinese philosophy by Laozi

• Believed in harmony with nature and “the Way” (Dao)

• Rejected rigid laws and social rules

• Influenced Chinese medicine and art

Judaism

• First monotheistic religion

• Founded by Abraham and the Hebrews

• Sacred text: Torah

• Emphasized covenant with one God

Jesus of Nazareth

• Founder of Christianity

• Taught love, forgiveness, and salvation

• Crucified by Romans, believed to have resurrected

• Seen as Son of God by Christians

Saint Paul

• Early Christian missionary and writer
• Spread Christianity across the Roman Empire
• Wrote many letters in the New Testament
• Emphasized faith and salvation

Muhammad ibn Abdullah

• Founder of Islam (born 570 CE in Mecca)
• Received revelations that became the Quran
• Preached monotheism and social justice
• United Arabia under Islam

Quran

• Holy book of Islam
• Contains God’s revelations to Muhammad
• Written in Arabic
• Central guide for Muslim faith and law

Ummah

• Global Muslim community
• United by faith and shared values
• Replaced tribal divisions in Arabia
• Promotes brotherhood among Muslims

Ulama

• Islamic scholars and teachers
• Interpreted Sharia (Islamic law)
• Played key roles in education and governance
• Preserved Islamic traditions

Sufism

• Mystical branch of Islam
• Focused on personal connection with God
• Used music, poetry, and dance for worship
• Spread Islam through love and tolerance

Silk Road

• Land trade routes across Asia
• Linked China, India, Persia, and Europe
• Traded silk, spices, and ideas
• Spread Buddhism and diseases

Sea Roads

• Indian Ocean trade routes
• Connected East Africa, Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia
• Carried bulk goods like spices, timber, and gold
• Monsoon winds helped sailors travel

Sand Roads

• Trans-Saharan trade routes
• Linked West Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean
• Gold-salt trade made cities like Timbuktu rich
• Spread Islam into West Africa

Song Dynasty China’s Economic Revolution

• Golden Age of innovation and trade
• Invented gunpowder, paper money, and printing
• Population and cities rapidly grew
• GDP was triple that of Europe

Hangzhou

• Song Dynasty capital city
• One of the world’s largest and richest cities
• Center of trade and culture
• Described by Marco Polo as magnificent

Footbinding

• Practice of tightly binding girls’ feet in China
• Began during Song Dynasty
• Symbol of beauty and social status
• Caused lifelong pain and deformity

Chuno

• Dried potato food from the Andes
• Created by freeze-drying potatoes overnight
• Could last for years as storage food
• Used by the Inca for armies and travel

Bushido

• Code of honor for Japanese samurai
• Emphasized loyalty, bravery, and self-discipline
• Influenced Japanese culture and ethics
• Similar to chivalry in Europe

Abbasid Caliphate

• Islamic empire (750–1258 CE)
• Capital at Baghdad, center of learning
• Translated Greek and Persian knowledge
• Ended after Mongol invasions

Seljuk-Turkic Empire

• Muslim Turkic state (11th–12th centuries)
• Revived Islamic power before the Crusades
• Controlled Persia and parts of the Middle East
• Weakened Byzantine Empire

Ottoman Empire

• Turkish Islamic empire (1300s–1900s)
• Conquered Constantinople (1453)
• Controlled 3 continents at its height
• Ruled by sultans and supported Islam

Al-Andalus

• Muslim Spain (711–1492 CE)
• Known for science, art, and tolerance
• Major city: Córdoba
• Blended Islamic and European cultures

Byzantine Empire

• Eastern Roman Empire (330–1453 CE)
• Capital: Constantinople
• Preserved Greek and Roman knowledge
• Practiced Eastern Orthodox Christianity

Constantinople

• Capital of Byzantine Empire
• Center of trade between Europe and Asia
• Massive walls protected it for centuries
• Conquered by Ottomans in 1453

Roman Catholic Church

• Western branch of Christianity
• Led by the Pope in Rome
• Dominated medieval Europe spiritually and politically
• Supported Crusades and missionary work

European Renaissance

• Rebirth of art, learning, and science (1300s–1600s)
• Inspired by Greece and Rome
• Focused on humanism and individuality
• Began in Italy

Mayan Civilization

• Mesoamerican civilization (2000 BCE–900 CE)
• Built pyramids and advanced calendars
• Created hieroglyphic writing
• City-states ruled by kings

Aztec Empire

• Empire in central Mexico (1300s–1500s)
• Capital: Tenochtitlan
• Practiced human sacrifices
• Conquered by Spanish (Cortés)

Inca Empire

• Andean empire in South America
• Built roads and terraces for farming
• Capital: Cuzco
• Conquered by Spanish (Pizarro)

Western Christendom

• Western Europe under Roman Catholic faith
• Controlled by the Pope
• Built monasteries and universities
• Spread Christianity globally

Cambrian Rus (Kievan Rus)

• Early Slavic kingdom around Kiev
• Adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity
• Traded along the Dnieper River
• Foundation for modern Russia and Ukraine

Crusades

• Religious wars (1096–1291 CE)
• Europeans tried to reclaim Holy Land from Muslims
• Increased trade and cultural exchange
• Weakened feudal system

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

• Branch of Christianity from the Byzantine Empire
• Led by patriarchs, not the Pope
• Used Greek in worship
• Focused on tradition and icons

Caesaropapism

• System where ruler is both political and religious leader
• Used in Byzantine Empire
• Strengthened emperor’s authority
• Merged church and state power

Temujin (Genghis Khan)

• Founder of the Mongol Empire
• United Mongol tribes under his rule
• Brilliant military strategist
• Created largest land empire in history

Mongol World War

• Mongol conquests across Asia and Europe (1200s)
• Devastated cities but boosted trade
• Connected Eurasia under one rule
• Spread technology and diseases

Kublai Khan

• Grandson of Genghis Khan
• Founded China’s Yuan Dynasty
• Promoted trade and foreign visitors (like Marco Polo)
• Tolerant of different religions

Yuan Dynasty

• Mongol-ruled China (1271–1368)
• Blended Chinese and Mongol culture
• Rebuilt roads and canals
• Overthrown by Ming rebels

Ming Dynasty

• Chinese dynasty after Mongols (1368–1644)
• Restored Chinese traditions
• Sponsored Zheng He’s sea voyages
• Built the Forbidden City

Helegu (Hulegu)

• Mongol ruler in Persia
• Destroyed Baghdad in 1258
• Founded Ilkhanate in the Middle East
• Spread Mongol influence into Islam

South Ovid Empire (likely Chola Empire)

• South Indian maritime empire (9th–13th centuries)
• Controlled Indian Ocean trade routes
• Built huge Hindu temples
• Spread Tamil culture abroad

Khanate of the Golden Horde

• Mongol state in Russia (1200s–1400s)
• Collected tribute from Russian princes
• Centered around Volga River
• Eventually absorbed by Russia

Black Death

• Plague pandemic (1347–1351)
• Killed about one-third of Europe’s population
• Spread by fleas on rats via trade routes
• Weakened feudalism and church power