PATHO (E2) Chapter 24: Disorders of leukocytes and lymphoid tissues

How much blood do humans have?

5 liters (1.3 gallons)

What is the cellular component of blood?

Erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes (45% of blood)

What is blood plasma?

Liquid part of blood, mostly water and proteins (55% of blood)

What are the functions of blood?

Transportation of nutrients, protections against pathogens, regulation of homeostasis

Blood fractionation

The process of separating it into its component parts using a centrifuge

Hematopoiesis

The formation of blood cells from stem cells in the bone marrow

What are pluripotent cells?

Stem cells that can differentiate into each of the different types of blood cells

Lymphoid stem cell

Differentiates into the 3 types of lymphocytes (T cells, B cells, NK cells)

Myeloid stem cell

Differentiates into erythrocytes/platelets, and granulocytes/monocytes

Hematopoietic growth factors

"Hormones" that promote and regulate the differentiation and proliferation of blood cells

Colony-stimulating factors

Another name for Hematopoietic growth factors

EPO

Erythropoietin; promotes growth of red blood cells

TPO

Thrombopoietin; stimulates platelet production

GM-CSF

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; stimulates granulocytes and monocytes

Hematology

The study of blood and blood disorders

Hematology nurses

These nurses specialize in caring for patients with blood disorders

Leukocytes

White blood cells

Granular leukocytes

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

PHILLED (filled) with granules (enzymes)

Agranular leukocytes

Lymphocytes and monocytes

No granules

What is unique about lymphocytes?

They can move between blood and lymphatic tissue, whereas all others only circulate in blood

That's why they're called LYMPHocytes silly goose

What are the two most common leukocytes?

Neutrophils and lymphocytes

Neutrophils

Structure: Nuclei has three or more lobes

Function: The most common WBC; fights bacterial infections by engulfing bacteria by phagocytosis

Where does the name neutrophils come from?

Their granules do not stain with acid or basic dye

Other name for neutrophils

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (bc they have many lobes)

Eosiniphils

Structure: Nuclei has two lobes, granules stain pink

Function: A WBC that digests and destroys parasitic worms, they also play a role in allergy and immune response

Where does the name eosinophils come from?

Their granules stain pink with acidic dye called eosin

Basophils

Structure: Nuclei is U or S shaped but is obstructed by HUGE blue granules

Function: A WBC that produces histamine --> causing inflammation during an immune response

Where does the name basophils come from?

Stain blue with hematoxylin dye

Monocytes

Structure: Largest WBCs, U shaped nucleus

Function: A large WBC that transform into macrophages to fight off viruses and chronic infections

Lymphocytes

Structure: Has a large, dark purple nucleus that takes up most of the cell volume

Function: B cells make antibodies, T cells fight off viral infections, NK cells

B cells

A type of lymphocyte that is created in the bone marrow; creates antibodies that isolate and destroy pathogens

Naive B cells

A B cell that has not been exposed to an antigen yet

Effector B cells

Active B cells that have been exposed to antigens

Plasma cells

A type of effector B cells, they produce antibodies

Memory B cells

A type of effector B-cell that memorizes the characteristics of the pathogen antigen; it remains dormant until reactivated by the same antigen

elephant never forgets.

T cells

A type of lymphocyte that is created in the thymus; produce substances that attack infected cells in the body

CD8 T cells

Cytotoxic T cells

A type of effector T-cell; they target and kill invading pathogens and cancer cells

CD4 T cells

Helper T cells

A type of effector T-cell that, when activated, stimulates activity of B cells and cytotoxic T cells

Memory T cells

A T cell that remembers antigen and quickly stimulate immune response on re-exposure

crow never forgets.

Natural Killer (NK) cells

A type of lymphocyte found in the blood/lymph nodes/spleen --> they kill cancer cells and cells infected with viruses

Primary lymphoid tissues

Bone marrow and thymus

Secondary lymphoid tissues

Lymph nodes, spleen, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

What does the bone marrow do?

Produces blood cells

What does the thymus do?

Site of T cell differentiation and maturation

What do the lymph nodes do?

Filter lymph --> trap pathogens for destruction by white blood cells

What does the spleen do?

Filters blood and removes damaged blood cells

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

Lymphatic tissue without a connective tissue capsule (salivary glands, eyes, breast tissue)

Non-neoplastic

Not cancerous

What kind of non-neoplastic disorders are the most common?

Those that involve neutrophils and lymphocytes

What kind of non-neoplastic disorders are the least common?

Those that involve monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils

Neutropenia

Definition: Abnormally low number of neutrophils

Etiology: Chemotherapy, autoimmune disorders, septicemia that uses up neutrophils

S+S: Recurrent infections, absence of pus formation at sites of infection

Treatment: Antimicrobial meds, hematopoietic growth factors

Agranulocytosis

Severe neutropenia (appears that you have no granulocytes)

Neutrophilic Leukocytosis

Definition: Abnormally high number of neutrophils

Etiology: Normal immune response to infection, autoimmune disorders

S+S: N/A

Treatment: Solve underlying cause of infection/injury

Lymphocytopenia

Definition: Abnormally low number of lymphocytes

Etiology: Chemotherapy, autoimmune disorders, HIV or TB

S+S: Recurrent infections, decreases in B, T, or NK cells

Treatment: Antimicrobial meds, gamma globulins (artificial antibodies)

Lymphocytic leukocytosis

Definition: Abnormally high number of lymphocytes (B cells, T cells, or NK cells)

Etiology: Viral infections, autoimmune disorders

S+S:

Treatment: Solve underlying cause of infection/injury

Infectious mononucleosis

Definition: Kissing disease

Etiology: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)

S+S: Sore throat, fatigue, fever, enlarged spleen, large number of BIG lymphocytes

Treatment: Rest + no exercise

Pathogenesis of mono

EBV enters and multiplies in epithelial cells in mouth --> Spreads to B cells in the throat --> Infected B cells multiply --> Signs and symptoms --> Cytotoxic T cells and NK cells destroy infected B cells --> Recovery

Leukemias

Cancers of the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow

Where does the name leukemia come from?

There is a reversal of the normal RBC to WBC ratio --> now more WBCS than RBCS --> "white blood"

What 2 factors are used to classify leukemias?

Based on

1. Whether they are acute or chronic

2. Affected cell type (lymphoid or myeloid)

Lymphocytic leukemia

Leukemia involving cells that originate from lymphoid stem cells

Myelocytic leukemia

Leukemia involving cells that originate from myeloid stem cells

Acute Leukemias

Large numbers of immature BLAST leukocytes in the blood and bone marrow (rapid onset and progression)

Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)

Acute leukemia of lymphoid stem cells that occurs in children and adolescents

Acute myelocytic leukemia (AML)

Acute leukemia of myeloid stem cells that occurs in older adults

Chronic Leukemias

Large numbers of mature, differentiated leukocytes in the blood and bone marrow (slow onset and progression)

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)

Chronic leukemia of lymphoid stem cells that occurs in older adults

Chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML)

Chronic leukemia of myeloid stem cells that occurs in older adults

S+S of leukemias

Fever, chills and night sweats, loss of appetite, weight loss, bone pain, enlarged lymph nodes, spleen, and liver

Why is fatigue a symptom of leukemia?

Anemia

Why is bleeding a symptom of leukemia?

Decreased platelet count

Why is recurrent infections a symptom of leukemia?

Neutropenia

Leukostasis

Complication of acute leukemia; a severely elevated circulating immature WBC count --> blood is more viscous --> clot development

Pulmonary leukostasis

Sudden shortness of breath and progressive dyspnea; caused by a WBC clot

Cerebral leukostasis

Severe headache which can progress to confusion and coma; caused by a WBC clot

Genetic factors that increase the likelihood of leukemia

Down Syndrome --> high risk of acute leukemias

Family history --> high risk of CLL

Philadelphia chromosome --> high risk of CML

Environmental factors that increase the likelihood of leukemia

Exposure to chemicals, chemotherapy

How are leukemias diagnosed?

Leukocyte count, bone marrow biopsy, genetic tests

How are leukemias treated?

Chemo, radiation, bone marrow transplants, antimicrobial meds

Malignant Lymphomas

Solid neoplastic tumors that originate in the peripheral lymphoid tissues

Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL)

Definition: Tumor that originates in ONE single lymph nodes --> spread to other nodes

Pathogenesis: B cells transform into large, abnormal cells (Reed-Sternberg cells)

S+S: Painless enlargement of lymph nodes above the diaphragm, fever, weight loss

Treatment: Chemo and radiation

What ages are most affected by Hodgkin's lymphomas?

Common in young adults (20-30 yrs) and older adults (over 55 yrs)

Non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHLs)

Definition: Tumor that originates in multiple lymph nodes --> spread to other body tissues

Pathogenesis: B cells OR T cells become malignant

Etiology: Infections, immunosuppression, chemicals

S+S: Painless enlargement of lymph nodes in neck, axilla, or groin, fever, weight loss

Treatment: Chemo, radiation

What ages are most affected by Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma?

Common in the elderly (over 65 yrs)

Multiple Myeloma

Definition: Malignancy of plasma cells

Pathogenesis: Terminally differentiated plasma (B) cells secrete a TON of antibodies

Etiology: N/A

S+S: Bone pain, fractures, loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue, kidney failure

Treatment: Chemo + palliative care :(

Defining characteristics of Multiple Myeloma

High antibody level, osteolytic lesions in bones

What demographic groups are most affected my multiple myeloma?

More common in elderly, men, and African-Americans

How is multiple myeloma detected?

Blood test will detect M proteins (abnormal IgG)

Urine test will detect Bence-Jones proteins (fragment of antibody)