AP Psychology unit 0 vocab

Definition of Pyschology

The science of behavior and mental processes

Biopsychological approach

A perspective that explains behavior and mental processes by considering the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.

Biological factors

genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, hormones

Psychological factors

Thoughts, emotions, learning, memory, presonality traits

Social-cultural factors

Family, peers, culture, environment, social expectations

Biological approach

explains behavior through the brain, nervous system, neurotransmitters, hormones and genetics. It sees thoughts and actions as having a physical/biological basis.

Evolutionary approach

Explains behavior and mental processes in terms of natural selection traits that increase survivial and reproduce/more likely to be passed on

Psychodynamic approach

Focuses on unconscious drives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences.

Cognitive approach

Studies mental processes like perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision making.

Humanistic approach

stresses personal growth and potential.

Social-cultural approach

Explains how culture, social norms, and social contexts influence behavior

Developmental domain

studies physical, cognitive, and social changes across the lifespan

Personality and psychometric domain

Focuses on personality traits and psychodynamic testing

Positive domain

Studies human strengths, happiness, resilience, and well-being

Clinical domain

Focuses on psychological disorders, diagnosis, and treatment

3 roadblocks to critical thinking are

Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and perceiving pattern in random events

Hindsight bias

“I knew it all along”, The false belief that one could have predicted an event after it has already occurred.

Ex: after a breakup= “I knew they wouldn’t last”

Overconfidence

One’s tendency to overestimate one’s own abilities, knowledge, or chances of success.

Ex: A student overestimating how quickly they can complete a project

Perceiving order in random events

Tendency to see patterns or predictability in events that are actually random and unrelated.

Gambler’s fallacy

Belief that random events are influenced by previous outcomes, even when they are independent.

Ex: Flipping a quarter and landing on heads 3 times in a row, the next flip should also be heads right?

Peer review

The crucial process where other experts in the field evaluate a research study before publication for quality

Hypothesis

A testable and specific prediction about the relationship between 2 or more variables implied by a theory.

Falsifiability

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.

Operational definition

defining a concept in terms of how you measure that concept

Ex: measuring weight you use a scale, measuring length you use a ruler

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case study

A non-experimental technique where an individual or very small group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. Not really measured.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines and analyzes data from multiple independent studies on the same topic to identify overall trends, patterns, and effect sizes.

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive research method involving psychologists, observe and record behavior in its natural real-world setting WITHOUT manipulating variables and interfering with what’s happening. Describe behavior naturally.

Ex: An ethologist observing chimpanzees in the wild.

Survey

A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group. Usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Social desirability bias

Bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes. They are not actually being honest they just want to present themselves as better.

Ex: A person might falsely report higher income, better health habits, or lower prejudice to appear socially acceptable.

Self-report bias

Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

Experimenter bias

Bias where a researcher’s expectations or beliefs unintentionally influence the outcome of a study or how participants behave.

Population

All those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Random sample

A sample fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where researchers select participants based easy availability to participate rather than using random selection.

Representative sample

A small carefully elected subset of participants that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population being studied.

Non-experimental methods

Describe behaviors via case studies, surveys, naturalistic observations, NO cause and effect.

Experimental methods

Manipulative variables to see the effects testing variables, cause and effect

Operational definition

defining a concept in terms of how you measure that concept

Ex: weight→ scale, Length→ ruler

Correlational Research (non-experimental method)

Describes the relationship between 2 or more variables

Correlate

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (From -1.00 to 1.00)

This helps figure out how closely two things vary together and how well either one predicts the other

Variables

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Scatterplots

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. Slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

Directionality problem

It cannot tell us which variable is the cause and which one is the effect.

Third variable problem

Unaccounted for, uncontrolled variable affects both the independent and dependent variable creating a fake relationship.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual score or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. Due to extreme higher or lower mean (average) value.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment aims to control relevant factors.

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

In an experiment, the group NOT exposed to the treatment contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between different groups. EXPERIMENT

Random sampling

Creates a representative survey sample to generalize results

Placebo

A pill with no drug in it

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the placebo

Double-blind procedure

An experiment procedure in which both research participants AND the research staff are blind/ignorant about whether the research participants received the placebo. Commonly used in drug evalutaions.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone. Any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Ex: Depressed patient given an anti-depressant, over time they feel less depressed

Independent variable(S)

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding variables

In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied, that might influence a study’s results.

Experimenter bias

Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Social desirability bias

Participants affecting results by trying to please researchers. pressured by social norms, not wanting to seem “bad” but rather a “good” person.

Dependent variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (Accuracy)

Experimental methodology

The scientific approach to determine cause and effect by manipulating an independent variable and measuring its impact on a dependent variable while controlling other factors to isolate the true effect of the independent variable.

Non-experimental methodology

Research that observes, measures and describes behavior without manipulating the independent variable or randomly assigning participants.

Positive correlation

Both variables move in the same direction, increase or decrease together.

Ex: Higher study hours correlate with higher test scores

Negative correlation

Variables move in opposite directions, one increase while the other decreases or vice versa.

Ex: As cold temperatures increase, ice cream sales decrease.

Research design

The comprehensive, strategic plan, for conducting a study and gathering data to test hypotheses or answer research questions.

Ex: Experimental, correlational, case study, naturalistic observations, etc…

Meta-analyses

A statistical procedure for analyzing results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Quantitative research

A research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

Ex: numerical data represent degrees of variable

Qualitative research

Research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers.

Ex: in depth narrative data

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. Legal requirement for adults.

Informed assent

Voluntary agreement from a MINOR to participate requiring Parental consent. Ethical.

Likert scale

Psychometric, often 5-7 point survey tool used to measure attitudes, opinions, or perceptions by having participants rate their level of agreements with statements

Debrief

Post experimental explanation of a study including purpose and descriptions to participants

Institutional review boards

Compromised of at least 5 people, 1 scientist, 1 non-scientist, and 2 community representative. Screen research proposals and safe guard rights, welfare, and well being of human research participants.

Protect from harm

An ethical principle requiring researchers and clinicians to ensure physical, mental, and emotional safety of participants.

Confidentiality

Principle requiring researchers to protect participant private information, ensuring data is not disclosed without consent.

Research confederates

An actor working with the experimenter who poses as a fellow participant while actually following a script to manipulate social situation.

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measure of variation.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution of quantitative data

Measure of central tendency

A single score that represents a whole set of scores

Mode

The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding scores and then dividing by the number of the scores. Can be higher/lower but will also affect data.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Range

The difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer scores lie near extremes.

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Meta-analysis

Statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Statistically significant

Statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

Effect size

The strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

Confidence interval

A range of values that likely includes the populations true mean value

Bimodal distribution

occurs when there are two frequently occurring scores. A data set with two modes where values cluster, indicating two separate underlying subpopulations.

Measures of variation

Descriptive statistics that quantify the degree to which scores in a data set are spread out of clustered around the mean.