Factors of Differential Educational Achievement

Internal and External Factors of Class, Ethnicity and Gender

What is middle class?

• A social class of people who are not poor but are not wealthy.  

• The middle class is often defined by income, education, occupation, or social status. 

What is working class?

• A socioeconomic class of people who earn a living through wage labour.  

• Working-class jobs are often low-paying, require little skill, or involve physical labour. 

What are internal factors?

Internal factors are elements within the school environment that can impact a student's academic achievement.  

What is educational triage?

The process of sorting students into groups based on their perceived ability to succeed academically 

What is labelling?

The idea of how others’ labels influence people's self-identity and behaviour 

What is the impact of labelling on a student’s achievement?

The idea that when individuals are assigned labels by others, particularly in educational settings, these labels can significantly influence their self-perception and subsequent academic performance, often leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where individuals live up to the negative label they've been given, impacting their overall achievement levels 

What is the evaluation of labelling?

The idea that people's self-identity and behaviour are shaped by how others label them 

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

A false belief that influences people's behaviour in a way that makes the belief true 

What is the impact of a self-fulfilling prophecy on achievement?

Influencing a person's behaviour and performance based on the expectations others hold for them, with positive expectations often leading to higher achievement and negative expectations resulting in lower achievement; essentially, if someone believes they will succeed, they are more likely to put in the effort to do so, while believing they will fail can lead to self-sabotaging behaviours that hinder success. 

What is the evaluation of a self-fulfilling?

Students believed to be on the verge of great academic success performed in accordance with these expectations; students not labelled this way did not. 

What is setting and streaming?

• A method of grouping students into classes based on their ability level 

• The practice of grouping students into classes based on their perceived ability 

What is the impact of setting and streaming on achievement?

Often negatively affecting students placed in lower sets or streams due to factors like lower teacher expectations, reduced access to challenging material, and potential self-fulfilling prophecies, leading to wider educational inequalities 

What are pupil subcultures?

A group of students in a school who share similar views and behaviours about the school. These subcultures can be positive or negative, and are often based on social class, ethnicity, or gender. 

What is the impact of pupil subcultures on achievement?

They can significantly impact a student's academic achievement, with "pro-school" subcultures generally leading to higher achievement while "anti-school" subcultures often result in underachievement, as students within these groups may reject the values of the school and prioritise peer acceptance over academic success; this can manifest in behaviours like disruptive classroom conduct, lack of engagement, and negative attitudes towards learning. 

What is the evaluation of pupil subcultures?

They influence students' attitudes towards academics, motivation to learn, and overall engagement with schoolwork, with "pro-school" subcultures generally leading to higher achievement and "anti-school" subcultures often resulting in lower achievement levels; essentially, the values and norms of a student's peer group can directly affect how they perceive and pursue academic success. 

What is a pupil’s class identity?

How students perceive themselves as learners and how others perceive them. These identities can be influenced by a number of factors, including the labels teachers use, the school's values, and a student's social class. 

What is the impact of pupil’s class identity on achievement?

It influences their self-perception, engagement with learning, and academic achievement, with students from lower socio-economic backgrounds often facing challenges like negative labelling, cultural clashes within the school environment, and limited access to resources, which can lead to underachievement compared to their middle-class peers 

What is the evaluation of pupil’s class identity?

They often leading to biased assessments due to teachers' perceptions and expectations based on their social class background, potentially resulting in underestimation of working-class students' abilities and overestimation of middle-class students' potential, creating a disparity in educational achievement. 

What is cultural deprivation?

The lack of access to cultural resources and opportunities that can impact a person's social and educational development 

What is material deprivation?

There is a lack of resources and opportunities to meet basic needs. It's often associated with poverty and can have serious consequences for individuals and communities. 

What are external factors?

Things that affect people outside of a school or institution, but still impact their outcomes 

How does cultural deprivation link to language?

Refers to the concept that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may lack the language skills and linguistic codes necessary for success in education, often due to their upbringing in a home where the dominant language patterns differ from those used in schools, putting them at a disadvantage compared to their middle-class peers 

How does parent’s language link to cultural deprivation?

A theory that children from certain backgrounds are underachieving in school due to inadequate socialisation 

How does working class subculture link to cultural deprivation?

It refers to the idea that working-class families may lack the cultural capital, values, and language skills necessary for success in education, often due to their socialised norms and beliefs which differ from the dominant middle-class culture, leading to underachievement in school compared to their middle-class peers 

What is material deprivation?

There is a lack of resources and opportunities to meet basic needs. It's often associated with poverty and can have serious consequences for individuals and communities. 

How does cost of education link to material deprivation?

The cost of education can include tuition fees, school supplies, and other costs. These costs can vary depending on whether a student attends a public or private school, and whether they have access to resources like computers and the internet. 

How does housing and health link to material deprivation?

Material deprivation, or a lack of resources, can negatively impact health and housing. This can include poor housing conditions, low income, and a lack of access to essential items. 

What is economic capital?

Money, property, and other physical possessions

What is cultural capital?

• Familiarity with a society's dominant culture 

• Skills, competencies, and qualifications 

• A symbolic representation of socioeconomic status

What is conversion?

The process of changing one type of capital into another. This allows people to adapt to different fields by using the type of capital that is most valued in that field. 

What did Alice Sullivan’s paper titled ‘Cultural Capital and Educational Attainment’ include?

• Students who read more complex fiction and watched more serious documentaries had better cultural knowledge and vocabulary  

• Students' cultural capital was strongly correlated with their parents' cultural capital and their social class background  

• Students' cultural capital was a factor in their GCSE results, but other factors also contributed  

• Not all forms of cultural capital are valued equally by society's institutions  

What are internal factors?

Factors within the school that can affect a student's academic success 

What is labelling?

The idea that others label people influences their self-identity and behaviour 

What are radicalised expectations?

The idea that students from ethnic minorities will behave differently from other students

What is discipline?

A concept that refers to the various ways in which society controls and regulates people 

What are setting and streaming?

Students from certain ethnicities may be more likely to be placed in lower sets or streams, limiting their educational opportunities and contributing to ethnic inequalities in educational attainment. 

What is family support in Asian pupils?

They are often more supportive of school policies and encourage their children to succeed. They may also have a more pro-school attitude than other families.

What are teacher expectations of Asian pupils?

They may have higher expectations of Asian students, believing them to be capable and hard-working. However, teachers may also have stereotyped views of Asian students, which can lead to misinterpretations of their behaviour.  

What are cultural values of Asian pupils?

Asian cultures often value education highly and see it as a privilege. This can lead to pushy parents who constantly encourage their children to achieve.  

What is racism for Asian pupils?

Minority ethnic groups, including Asian students, may face racism in society, which can lead to higher risks of material disadvantage at school. 

What are pupil identities?

How students perceive themselves as learners, and how their ethnicity influences this. Ethnicity is a social identity that refers to a shared culture, history, and identity. 

What are ideal pupils?

A white, middle-class, masculinised identity, with a normal sexuality. 

What is a pathologised pupil identity?

Characterises students from deprived backgrounds who strive to do what is expected of them, despite lacking natural abilities or talents 

What is a demonised pupil identity?

A black or white working-class individual with a hyper-sexualised identity. These individuals tend to be unintelligent, led by peers, culturally deprived and underachieving 

What is a rejection of labels?

A reaction to the labels that society assigns to individuals or groups. In the context of ethnicity, this can include the rejection of stereotypes and preconceived notions that are often associated with ethnic labels. 

What are failed coping strategies?

When people use ineffective strategies to deal with racial or ethnic discrimination, it can lead to chronic stress. This can include avoiding certain people or subjects, or not fully engaging with the material

What do conformists do?

Accept the school's values and want to succeed academically. They may deny their ethnic background to avoid being stereotyped. 

What do rebels do?

Reject the school's values and join anti-school peer groups. They may believe in black masculinity and see white boys as effeminate.

What do retreatists do?

Feel isolated and disconnected from school, their peer group, and their ethnic group. They may keep a low profile. 

What do inovvators?

Reject the school as institutionally racist but still want to do well academically. They may find other ways to succeed outside of school. 

What is the critical racism theory?

An academic framework that examines the relationship between race, ethnicity, and social, political, and legal systems. CRT is used in sociology to explain how these systems create and maintain inequalities between people of different races. 

What is marketing and segregation have to do with institutional racism?

A curriculum that prioritises the culture of one ethnic group over others. It can be characterised by a narrow and distorted view of history and culture, which can reinforce power structures and perpetuate inequality. 

What is the ethnocentric curriculum?

A curriculum that prioritises the culture of one ethnic group over others. It can be characterised by a narrow and distorted view of history and culture, which can reinforce power structures and perpetuate inequality. 

What does assessment have have to do with institutional racism?

Educational attainment: How factors like school quality, resources, and equal opportunities impact ethnic minority students 

What is access to opportunities?

The unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and life chances among different ethnic groups. This inequality can be experienced by individuals or groups.  

What is new ‘IQ’ ism?

• When teachers are asked to judge the potential 

• Place disproportionate numbers of black students in low-ranked groups 

What is ethnicity?

A term used to describe a group of people who share a common cultural and social background 

What are trends in ethnicity and achievement?

Chinese, Indian, African and Asian students have higher qualifications than their White counterparts. African-Caribbean girls achieve better grades than their White peers. More ethnic minority students continue their education post-16. 

How does language link with cultural deprivation?

Individuals from certain ethnic backgrounds, often associated with lower socioeconomic status, may lack the language skills necessary for academic success due to limited exposure to complex vocabulary and grammar within their home environment 

How do families structures and support link with cultural deprivation?

Cultural deprivation theory is used to explain ethnic differences in educational achievement. It suggests that children from low-income families lack the intellectual stimulation and social support needed to succeed in school. 

How do attitudes and values link with cultural deprivation?

The shared beliefs, norms, and perspectives that individuals within a particular ethnic group hold, shaped by their cultural heritage, history, and experiences, can influence their behaviours and interactions with others across different social contexts 

What is the link between material deprivation and ethnicity?

Palmer (2012) found that almost half of all ethnic minority children lived in low-income households suffering from material deprivation, and ethnic minority households are three times more likely to be homeless. It is important to note that class will play an essential role when looking at educational attainment as it provides an overview approach. Ethnicity cannot be looked in isolation, as intersectionality is the best way to holistically acknowledge what can affect someone in education. 

What is racism in wider society?

The systemic and pervasive patterns of discrimination based on race that exist across various social institutions like education, employment, housing, and the legal system, leading to unequal opportunities and outcomes for people of colour, often beyond overt individual prejudice and extending into societal structures and practices 

What are internal factors?

The ways gender influences a student's experience in school, such as through expectations, role models, and subcultures 

What are the gender gaps in achievement at the start of school?

Girls tend to achieve better results than boys in sociology, but the gender gap varies by subject and by level of education 

What are gender gaps in achievement in key stage 1-3?

Girls generally perform better than boys, particularly in English subjects, where the gap tends to widen with age; while in subjects like science and maths, the gap is smaller but still favours girls. 

What are the gender gaps in achievement in key stage 4?

Girls tend to outperform boys academically, with data showing a significant percentage difference in higher grades achieved by girls compared to boys, particularly at GCSE level

What is the gender gap in achievement in key stage 5?

Girls outperforming boys, with a significant difference in subjects like English where a larger proportion of girls achieve higher grades compared to boys; however, the gap can narrow in certain subjects like maths where the difference between genders is smaller, with some studies indicating boys might slightly edge ahead in attainment. 

What is the gender gap in achievement within vocational education?

Girls outperforming boys, with a significant difference in subjects like English where a larger proportion of girls achieve higher grades compared to boys; however, the gap can narrow in certain subjects like maths where the difference between genders is smaller, with some studies indicating boys might slightly edge ahead in attainment 

What are equal opportunities for gender?

How gender stereotypes and discrimination can impact educational achievement and career opportunities.

What is the impact of equal opportunities on education?

A narrowing of the gender gap in academic achievement by providing girls with greater access to traditionally male-dominated subjects, challenging gender stereotypes, and generally raising girls' aspirations and educational attainment 

How did Liberal feminists evaluate equal opportunities?

Nobody benefits from gender inequality but that the education system socialises young people into gender roles. They believe that changes should take place within existing structures, such as changes in the law. 

What are role models?

Role models can inspire girls to pursue their educational aspirations and achieve academically

What is the impact of role models on education?

They can influence a student's self-perception, aspirations, and academic choices, with same-gender role models often having a particularly strong effect on girls, encouraging them to pursue fields traditionally considered "masculine" by demonstrating that women can achieve success in those areas; this is especially relevant when considering the underrepresentation of females in STEM fields 

How did the liberal feminists evaluate role models?

They place a significant emphasis on the importance of positive female role models as a key strategy to achieve gender equality, believing that by exposing girls to successful women in various fields, they can challenge traditional gender stereotypes and encourage higher aspirations for their own careers and lives; however, critics argue that this approach may not address deeper systemic issues of patriarchy and power imbalances within society. 

What is GCSE and coursework?

Some say that the introduction of coursework widened the gap in achievement between girls and boys, with girls performing better.  

How does GCSE and coursework impact on education?

A significant factor contributing to a widening gender gap in educational achievement, that girls generally perform better than boys due to their tendency to be more organised and conscientious when completing coursework tasks, compared to boys who may struggle with the demands of ongoing assignments and prefer high-stakes exams

How did Radical feminists evaluate GCSE and coursework?

Their view of patriarchy as the root cause of women's oppression, criticising their potential for overlooking intersectionality, and acknowledging their call for radical societal restructuring to dismantle male dominance across all social institutions, while recognising their contribution to raising awareness about systemic gender inequality, particularly within the family unit. 

What is teacher attention?

Dale Spencer (1983) found that teachers spent more time interacting with boys than girls. Becky Francis (2001) found that white boys were picked on more harshly and teachers had low expectations of them. 

How does teacher attention impact on education?

Teachers often unintentionally give more attention to boys than girls in the classroom, potentially contributing to gender gaps in academic achievement; this disparity can be attributed to factors like boys' more assertive behaviour, teacher biases, and societal gender stereotypes, leading to a dynamic where boys receive more interaction and feedback, even if it's sometimes negative, compared to girls who may be overlooked or expected to be quieter participants. 

How did radical feminists evaluate teacher attention?

• The issue of unequal distribution, where teachers inadvertently or consciously give more attention to certain students over others, leading to potential disparities in learning based on factors like; 

• Gender, race, behaviour, or perceived academic ability, with common criticisms including gender bias (favouring boys), disproportionate attention to disruptive students, neglecting quieter students, and creating self-fulfilling prophecies based on initial expectations about a student's capabilities 

What are challenging stereotypes?

It’s important to improve educational outcomes and help students develop respectful relationships. Sociologists argue that removing gender stereotypes from learning materials can help girls achieve more. 

How do challenging stereotypes impact on education?

Allowing individuals to pursue their interests freely without limitations based on their sex, leading to broader subject choices, improved self-esteem, and ultimately, greater educational opportunities for both girls and boys; this is achieved by actively addressing biased curriculum materials, teacher interactions, and classroom dynamics that reinforce traditional gender roles 

How did radical feminists evaluate challenging stereotypes?

They argue that patriarchy is the root cause of women's oppression, and that society needs to be restructured to address it. 

What are league tables and selection?

They have made girls more desirable to schools. Girls are known to achieve higher goals and have fewer behaviour problems than boys, which makes them more attractive to schools looking to boost their reputations and attract more students. 

How did league tables and selection impact on education?

They make girls more desirable to schools due to their generally higher exam results, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where girls are more likely to be admitted to better schools and therefore achieve higher results, while boys may be disadvantaged by this system; essentially, schools prioritise recruiting girls to boost their league table positions 

How did radical feminists evaluate league tables and selection?

They believe that patriarchy is the root cause of women's oppression and that social institutions are inherently biased towards men. They argue that the education system is patriarchal and that it marginalises women. 

What is feminism?

The rise in female educational achievement is largely due to the feminist movement's efforts to challenge gender stereotypes, promote equal opportunities for girls in education, and provide positive female role models, thus encouraging girls to pursue higher levels of education and career aspirations 

What is the impact of feminism on education?

Girls who have high aspirations in education tend to work harder and aim higher, resulting in better academic performance. Therefore, it can be argued that feminism has played a crucial role in changing the aspirations of girls and their academic achievement 

What is the evaluation of feminism?

Education systems are not neutral institutions but are deeply embedded within the broader structures of patriarchy. These structures perpetuate gender inequality and reinforce traditional gender roles 

What are changes in the family?

They have affected gender differences in educational achievement in sociology. These changes include an increase in divorce rates, cohabitation, and lone-parent families. 

How doe changes in the family impact on achievement?

Girls often showing improved educational outcomes due to seeing women in more empowered roles and valuing education as a means to financial independence; while boys may sometimes experience challenges due to a lack of traditional male role models in the home 

What is the evaluation of family changes?

• Family structure and college attainment: Changes in family structure can increase the gap in college attainment between daughters with lower educated mothers and those with higher educated mothers.  

• Family structure and role models: An increase in female-headed lone-parent families can create a new role model for girls, the financially independent woman.  

• Family structure and underachievement in boys: A lack of a male role model in the family unit can lead to underachievement in boys. 

What are the changes in women employment?

They have been influenced by feminism and the growth of service industries. These changes have led to more women entering paid employment, and more opportunities for women in traditionally "female" jobs. 

What is the impact of changes in women’s employment on achievement?

They increasing girls' aspirations and motivation to pursue higher education, as they now see education as a pathway to greater career opportunities and economic independence, leading to a narrowing of the gender gap in academic performance; this is often linked to factors like feminism, changing family structures, and legislation promoting gender equality in the workplace. 

What is the evaluation of changes in women’s employment?

Women's employment opportunities and educational attainment have improved in recent decades. This is due to a combination of legal changes, social factors, and the efforts of feminist movements. 

What are the changes in girl’s ambitions?

• 1970s: Girls in the 1970s placed a higher value on marriage, love, and husbands. They also believed that educational success was unfeminine.  

• 1990s: Girls in the 1990s placed a higher value on careers and being able to support themselves. They were more confident, assertive, and ambitious 

What is the impact of changing girls ambitions on achievement?

The shift towards prioritising careers and higher education due to feminist movements and societal changes, has significantly impacted their educational achievement, leading to a narrowing of the gender gap and, in many cases, girls now outperforming boys academically; this is because girls now see education as a crucial pathway to achieving their career goals and financial independence. 

What is the evaluation of changing girls ambitions?

Girls' ambitions are changing due to a number of factors, including feminism, role models, and changing family structures. These changes have led to girls being more likely to succeed academically and pursue careers. 

What is boys literacy?

Boys tend to have lower literacy skills than girls