Factors of Differential Educational Achievement

Class:

Internal Factors: 

Middle Class: 

• A social class of people who are not poor but are not wealthy.  

• The middle class is often defined by income, education, occupation, or social status. 

Working Class: 

• A socioeconomic class of people who earn a living through wage labour.  

• Working-class jobs are often low-paying, require little skill, or involve physical labour. 

Internal Factors: 

• Internal factors are elements within the school environment that can impact a student's academic achievement.  

Educational Triage: 

• The process of sorting students into groups based on their perceived ability to succeed academically 

A-C Economy: 

• The practice of schools focusing on improving their students' A-C GCSE grades 

Labeling: 

• Outline:  

  • The idea of how others’ labels influence people's self-identity and behaviour 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • The idea that when individuals are assigned labels by others, particularly in educational settings, these labels can significantly influence their self-perception and subsequent academic performance, often leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where individuals live up to the negative label they've been given, impacting their overall achievement levels 

• Evaluation: 

  • The idea that people's self-identity and behaviour are shaped by how others label them 

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: 

• Outline: 

  • A false belief that influences people's behaviour in a way that makes the belief true 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • Influencing a person's behaviour and performance based on the expectations others hold for them, with positive expectations often leading to higher achievement and negative expectations resulting in lower achievement; essentially, if someone believes they will succeed, they are more likely to put in the effort to do so, while believing they will fail can lead to self-sabotaging behaviours that hinder success. 

• Evaluation: 

  • Students believed to be on the verge of great academic success performed in accordance with these expectations; students not labelled this way did not. 

Setting and Streaming: 

• Outline: 

  • A method of grouping students into classes based on their ability level 

  • The practice of grouping students into classes based on their perceived ability 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • Often negatively affecting students placed in lower sets or streams due to factors like lower teacher expectations, reduced access to challenging material, and potential self-fulfilling prophecies, leading to wider educational inequalities 

• Evaluation: 

  • They appear to benefit higher attaining pupils and be detrimental to the learning of lower attaining learners. On average, it does not appear to be an effective strategy for raising the attainment of disadvantaged pupils, who are more likely to be assigned to lower groups. 

Pupil Subcultures: 

• Outline: 

  • A group of students in a school who share similar views and behaviours about the school. These subcultures can be positive or negative, and are often based on social class, ethnicity, or gender. 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • They can significantly impact a student's academic achievement, with "pro-school" subcultures generally leading to higher achievement while "anti-school" subcultures often result in underachievement, as students within these groups may reject the values of the school and prioritise peer acceptance over academic success; this can manifest in behaviours like disruptive classroom conduct, lack of engagement, and negative attitudes towards learning. 

• Evaluation: 

  • They influence students' attitudes towards academics, motivation to learn, and overall engagement with schoolwork, with "pro-school" subcultures generally leading to higher achievement and "anti-school" subcultures often resulting in lower achievement levels; essentially, the values and norms of a student's peer group can directly affect how they perceive and pursue academic success. 

Pupil’s Class Identity: 

• Outline: 

  • How students perceive themselves as learners and how others perceive them. These identities can be influenced by a number of factors, including the labels teachers use, the school's values, and a student's social class. 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • It influences their self-perception, engagement with learning, and academic achievement, with students from lower socio-economic backgrounds often facing challenges like negative labelling, cultural clashes within the school environment, and limited access to resources, which can lead to underachievement compared to their middle-class peers 

• Evaluation: 

  • They often leading to biased assessments due to teachers' perceptions and expectations based on their social class background, potentially resulting in underestimation of working-class students' abilities and overestimation of middle-class students' potential, creating a disparity in educational achievement. 

External Factors: 

Cultural Deprivation: 

• The lack of access to cultural resources and opportunities can impact a person's social and educational development 

Material Deprivation: 

• There is a lack of resources and opportunities to meet basic needs. It's often associated with poverty and can have serious consequences for individuals and communities. 

External Factors: 

• Things that affect people outside of a school or institution, but still impact their outcomes 

Cultural Deprivation: 

• Language: 

  • Refers to the concept that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may lack the language skills and linguistic codes necessary for success in education, often due to their upbringing in a home where the dominant language patterns differ from those used in schools, putting them at a disadvantage compared to their middle-class peers 

• Parents education: 

  • A theory that children from certain backgrounds are underachieving in school due to inadequate socialisation 

• Working Class Subculture: 

  • It refers to the idea that working-class families may lack the cultural capital, values, and language skills necessary for success in education, often due to their socialised norms and beliefs, which differ from the dominant middle-class culture, leading to underachievement in school compared to their middle-class peers 

Material Deprivation: 

• Overview: 

  • There is a lack of resources and opportunities to meet basic needs. It's often associated with poverty and can have serious consequences for individuals and communities. 

• Cost of Education: 

  • The cost of education can include tuition fees, school supplies, and other costs. These costs can vary depending on whether a student attends a public or private school, and whether they have access to resources like computers and the internet. 

• Housing and Health: 

  • Material deprivation, or a lack of resources, can negatively impact health and housing. This can include poor housing conditions, low income, and a lack of access to essential items. 

Bourdieu and Capital: 

• Types of Capital: 

  • Economic Capital: 

    • Money, property, and other physical possessions.  

  • Social Capital: 

    • Relationships that can help people advance, Social networks that can provide opportunities, and Emotional support and solidarity.  

  • Cultural Capital: 

    • Familiarity with a society's dominant culture 

    • Skills, competencies, and qualifications 

    • A symbolic representation of socioeconomic status 

  • Conversion: 

    • The process of changing one type of capital into another. This allows people to adapt to different fields by using the type of capital that is most valued in that field. 

  • Alice Sullivan (2001): 

    • Alice Sullivan published a paper titled "Cultural Capital and Educational Attainment".  

      • Students who read more complex fiction and watched more serious documentaries had better cultural knowledge and vocabulary  

      • Students' cultural capital was strongly correlated with their parents' cultural capital and their social class background  

      • Students' cultural capital was a factor in their GCSE results, but other factors also contributed  

      • Not all forms of cultural capital are valued equally by society's institutions  

Ethnicity: 

Internal Factors: 

• Factors within the school that can affect a student's academic success 

Labelling: 

• Overview: 

  • The idea that others label people influences their self-identity and behaviour 

• Racialised Expectations: 

  • The idea that students from ethnic minorities will behave differently from other students 

• Discipline: 

  • A concept that refers to the various ways in which society controls and regulates people 

• Setting and Streaming: 

  • Students from certain ethnicities may be more likely to be placed in lower sets or streams, limiting their educational opportunities and contributing to ethnic inequalities in educational attainment. 

• Asian Pupils: 

  • Family support: Asian families are often more supportive of school policies and encourage their children to succeed. They may also have a more pro-school attitude than other families.  

  • Teacher expectations: Teachers may have higher expectations of Asian students, believing them to be capable and hard-working. However, teachers may also have stereotyped views of Asian students, which can lead to misinterpretations of their behaviour.  

  • Cultural values: Asian cultures often value education highly and see it as a privilege. This can lead to pushy parents who constantly encourage their children to achieve.  

  • Racism: Minority ethnic groups, including Asian students, may face racism in society, which can lead to higher risks of material disadvantage at school. 

Pupil identities: 

• Overview: 

  • How students perceive themselves as learners, and how their ethnicity influences this. Ethnicity is a social identity that refers to a shared culture, history, and identity. 

• Types of Identity: 

  • Ideal Pupil: 

    • A white, middle-class, masculinised identity, with a normal sexuality. 

  • Pathologised Pupil Identity: 

    • Characterises students from deprived backgrounds who strive to do what is expected of them, despite lacking natural abilities or talents 

  • Demonised Pupil Identity: 

    • A black or white working-class individual with a hyper-sexualised identity. These individuals tend to be unintelligent, led by peers, culturally deprived and underachieving 

Pupil Responses and Subcultures: 

• Rejection of Labels: 

  • A reaction to the labels that society assigns to individuals or groups. In the context of ethnicity, this can include the rejection of stereotypes and preconceived notions that are often associated with ethnic labels. 

• Failed Coping Strategies: 

  • When people use ineffective strategies to deal with racial or ethnic discrimination, it can lead to chronic stress. This can include avoiding certain people or subjects, or not fully engaging with the material. 

• Boys’ responses to racist stereotypes: 

  • Conformists: Accept the school's values and want to succeed academically. They may deny their ethnic background to avoid being stereotyped. 

  • Rebels: Reject the school's values and join anti-school peer groups. They may believe in black masculinity and see white boys as effeminate. 

  • Retreatists: Feel isolated and disconnected from school, their peer group, and their ethnic group. They may keep a low profile. 

  • Innovators: Reject the school as institutionally racist but still want to do well academically. They may find other ways to succeed outside of school. 

Institutional Racism: 

• Critical Racism Theory: 

  • An academic framework that examines the relationship between race, ethnicity, and social, political, and legal systems. CRT is used in sociology to explain how these systems create and maintain inequalities between people of different races. 

• Marketisation and Segregation: 

  • Marketisation of education can lead to ethnic segregation when schools are allowed to compete for students, which creates opportunities for schools to select students. This can result in ethnic minority students being placed in lower-achieving schools. 

• Ethnocentric Curriculum: 

  • A curriculum that prioritises the culture of one ethnic group over others. It can be characterised by a narrow and distorted view of history and culture, which can reinforce power structures and perpetuate inequality. 

• Assessment: 

  • Educational attainment: How factors like school quality, resources, and equal opportunities impact ethnic minority students 

• Access to Opportunities: 

  • The unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and life chances among different ethnic groups. This inequality can be experienced by individuals or groups.  

• New ‘IQ’ ism: 

  • When teachers are asked to judge the potential 

  • Place disproportionate numbers of black students in low-ranked groups 

External: 

Ethnicity: 

• A term used to describe a group of people who share a common cultural and social background 

Trends in Ethnicity and Achievement: 

• Chinese, Indian, African and Asian students have higher qualifications than their White counterparts. African-Caribbean girls achieve better grades than their White peers. More ethnic minority students continue their education post-16. 

Cultural Deprivation: 

• Language: 

  • Individuals from certain ethnic backgrounds, often associated with lower socioeconomic status, may lack the language skills necessary for academic success due to limited exposure to complex vocabulary and grammar within their home environment 

• Family Structures and Support: 

  • Cultural deprivation theory is used to explain ethnic differences in educational achievement. It suggests that children from low-income families lack the intellectual stimulation and social support needed to succeed in school. 

• Attitudes and Values: 

  • The shared beliefs, norms, and perspectives that individuals within a particular ethnic group hold, shaped by their cultural heritage, history, and experiences, can influence their behaviours and interactions with others across different social contexts 

Material Deprivation (Ethnicity): 

• Overview: 

  • Palmer (2012) found that almost half of all ethnic minority children lived in low-income households suffering from material deprivation, and ethnic minority households are three times more likely to be homeless. It is important to note that class will play an essential role when looking at educational attainment as it provides an overview approach. Ethnicity cannot be looked in isolation, as intersectionality is the best way to holistically acknowledge what can affect someone in education. 

Racism in wider society:

• The systemic and pervasive patterns of discrimination based on race that exist across various social institutions like education, employment, housing, and the legal system, leading to unequal opportunities and outcomes for people of colour, often beyond overt individual prejudice and extending into societal structures and practices 

Gender: 

Internal Factors: 

• The ways gender influences a student's experience in school, such as through expectations, role models, and subcultures 

Gender Gaps in Achievement: 

• Starting school: 

  • Girls tend to achieve better results than boys in sociology, but the gender gap varies by subject and by level of education 

• Key Stage 1-3: 

  • Girls generally perform better than boys, particularly in English subjects, where the gap tends to widen with age; while in subjects like science and maths, the gap is smaller but still favours girls. 

• Key Stage 4: 

  • Girls tend to outperform boys academically, with data showing a significant percentage difference in higher grades achieved by girls compared to boys, particularly at GCSE level 

• Key Stage 5: 

  • Girls outperforming boys, with a significant difference in subjects like English where a larger proportion of girls achieve higher grades compared to boys; however, the gap can narrow in certain subjects like maths where the difference between genders is smaller, with some studies indicating boys might slightly edge ahead in attainment. 

• Vocational Education: 

  • Girls outperforming boys, with a significant difference in subjects like English where a larger proportion of girls achieve higher grades compared to boys; however, the gap can narrow in certain subjects like maths where the difference between genders is smaller, with some studies indicating boys might slightly edge ahead in attainment 

Internal Factors of Differential Education Achievement on Gender: 

• Equal Opportunities: 

  • Outline: 

    • How gender stereotypes and discrimination can impact educational achievement and career opportunities. 

• Impact on Education: 

  • A narrowing of the gender gap in academic achievement by providing girls with greater access to traditionally male-dominated subjects, challenging gender stereotypes, and generally raising girls' aspirations and educational attainment 

• (Evaluation) Liberal Feminists: 

  • Nobody benefits from gender inequality but that the education system socialises young people into gender roles. They believe that changes should take place within existing structures, such as changes in the law. 

• Role Models: 

  • Outline: 

    • Role models can inspire girls to pursue their educational aspirations and achieve academically 

• Impact on Education: 

  • They can influence a student's self-perception, aspirations, and academic choices, with same-gender role models often having a particularly strong effect on girls, encouraging them to pursue fields traditionally considered "masculine" by demonstrating that women can achieve success in those areas; this is especially relevant when considering the underrepresentation of females in STEM fields 

• (Evaluation) Liberal Feminists: 

  • They place a significant emphasis on the importance of positive female role models as a key strategy to achieve gender equality, believing that by exposing girls to successful women in various fields, they can challenge traditional gender stereotypes and encourage higher aspirations for their own careers and lives; however, critics argue that this approach may not address deeper systemic issues of patriarchy and power imbalances within society. 

• GCSE and Coursework: 

  • Outline: 

    • Some say that the introduction of coursework widened the gap in achievement between girls and boys, with girls performing better.  

• Impact on Education: 

  • A significant factor contributing to a widening gender gap in educational achievement, that girls generally perform better than boys due to their tendency to be more organised and conscientious when completing coursework tasks, compared to boys who may struggle with the demands of ongoing assignments and prefer high-stakes exams. 

• (Evaluation) Radical Feminists: 

  • Their view of patriarchy as the root cause of women's oppression, criticising their potential for overlooking intersectionality, and acknowledging their call for radical societal restructuring to dismantle male dominance across all social institutions; while recognising their contribution to raising awareness about systemic gender inequality, particularly within the family unit. 

• Teacher Attention: 

  • Outline: 

    • Dale Spencer (1983) found that teachers spent more time interacting with boys than girls. Becky Francis (2001) found that white boys were picked on more harshly and teachers had low expectations of them. 

• Impact on Education: 

  • Teachers often unintentionally give more attention to boys than girls in the classroom, potentially contributing to gender gaps in academic achievement; this disparity can be attributed to factors like boys' more assertive behaviour, teacher biases, and societal gender stereotypes, leading to a dynamic where boys receive more interaction and feedback, even if it's sometimes negative, compared to girls who may be overlooked or expected to be quieter participants. 

• (Evaluation) Radical Feminists: 

  • The issue of unequal distribution, where teachers inadvertently or consciously give more attention to certain students over others, leading to potential disparities in learning based on factors like; 

  • Gender, race, behaviour, or perceived academic ability, with common criticisms including gender bias (favouring boys), disproportionate attention to disruptive students, neglecting quieter students, and creating self-fulfilling prophecies based on initial expectations about a student's capabilities 

• Challenging Stereotypes:

  • Outline: 

    • It’s important to improve educational outcomes and help students develop respectful relationships. Sociologists argue that removing gender stereotypes from learning materials can help girls achieve more. 

• Impact on Education: 

  • Allowing individuals to pursue their interests freely without limitations based on their sex, leading to broader subject choices, improved self-esteem, and ultimately, greater educational opportunities for both girls and boys; this is achieved by actively addressing biased curriculum materials, teacher interactions, and classroom dynamics that reinforce traditional gender roles 

• (Evaluation) Radical Feminists: 

  • They argue that patriarchy is the root cause of women's oppression, and that society needs to be restructured to address it. 

• League Tables and Selection: 

  • Outline: 

    • They have made girls more desirable to schools. Girls are known to achieve higher goals and have fewer behaviour problems than boys, which makes them more attractive to schools looking to boost their reputations and attract more students. 

• Impact on Education: 

  • They make girls more desirable to schools due to their generally higher exam results, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where girls are more likely to be admitted to better schools and therefore achieve higher results, while boys may be disadvantaged by this system; essentially, schools prioritise recruiting girls to boost their league table positions 

• (Evaluation) Radical Feminists: 

  • They believe that patriarchy is the root cause of women's oppression and that social institutions are inherently biased towards men. They argue that the education system is patriarchal and that it marginalises women. 

External Factors: 

External Factors of Differential Education Achievement on Gender: 

• Feminism: 

  • Outline: 

    • The rise in female educational achievement is largely due to the feminist movement's efforts to challenge gender stereotypes, promote equal opportunities for girls in education, and provide positive female role models, thus encouraging girls to pursue higher levels of education and career aspirations 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • Girls who have high aspirations in education tend to work harder and aim higher, resulting in better academic performance. Therefore, it can be argued that feminism has played a crucial role in changing the aspirations of girls and their academic achievement 

• Evaluation: 

  • Education systems are not neutral institutions but are deeply embedded within the broader structures of patriarchy. These structures perpetuate gender inequality and reinforce traditional gender roles 

• Changes in the Family: 

  • Outline: 

    • They have affected gender differences in educational achievement in sociology. These changes include an increase in divorce rates, cohabitation, and lone-parent families. 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • Girls often showing improved educational outcomes due to seeing women in more empowered roles and valuing education as a means to financial independence; while boys may sometimes experience challenges due to a lack of traditional male role models in the home 

• Evaluation: 

  • Family structure and college attainment: Changes in family structure can increase the gap in college attainment between daughters with lower educated mothers and those with higher educated mothers.  

  • Family structure and role models: An increase in female-headed lone-parent families can create a new role model for girls, the financially independent woman.  

  • Family structure and underachievement in boys: A lack of a male role model in the family unit can lead to underachievement in boys. 

• Changes in Women’s Employment: 

  • Outline: 

    • They have been influenced by feminism and the growth of service industries. These changes have led to more women entering paid employment, and more opportunities for women in traditionally "female" jobs.  

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • They increasing girls' aspirations and motivation to pursue higher education, as they now see education as a pathway to greater career opportunities and economic independence, leading to a narrowing of the gender gap in academic performance; this is often linked to factors like feminism, changing family structures, and legislation promoting gender equality in the workplace. 

• Evaluation: 

  • Women's employment opportunities and educational attainment have improved in recent decades. This is due to a combination of legal changes, social factors, and the efforts of feminist movements. 

• Changing Girl’s Ambitions: 

  • Outline: 

    • 1970s: Girls in the 1970s placed a higher value on marriage, love, and husbands. They also believed that educational success was unfeminine.  

    • 1990s: Girls in the 1990s placed a higher value on careers and being able to support themselves. They were more confident, assertive, and ambitious 

• Impact on Achievement: 

  • The shift towards prioritising careers and higher education due to feminist movements and societal changes, has significantly impacted their educational achievement, leading to a narrowing of the gender gap and, in many cases, girls now outperforming boys academically; this is because girls now see education as a crucial pathway to achieving their career goals and financial independence. 

• Evaluation: 

  • Girls' ambitions are changing due to a number of factors, including feminism, role models, and changing family structures. These changes have led to girls being more likely to succeed academically and pursue careers. 

Gender (Boys):

Factors affecting Boys Educational Achievement: 

• Literacy: 

  • Internal Factor 

  • Outline: 

    • Boys tend to have lower literacy skills than girls 

  • Impact on Achievement: 

    • Poor literacy skills are often cited as a major contributor to boys' underachievement in school, particularly due to societal gender norms that can associate reading and writing with femininity, leading boys to avoid these activities and impacting their overall academic performance 

• Crisis of Masculinity: 

  • External Factor 

  • Outline: 

    • The confusion and uncertainty that boys and men feel about their roles in society. This can impact their motivation to succeed in school and their career aspirations. 

  • Impact on Achievement: 

    • Causing them to disengage from school and prioritise "masculine" behaviours over academic success; essentially, some boys may see academic pursuits as feminine and therefore not aligned with their desired identity 

• Feminisation of Education: 

  • Internal Factor 

  • Outline: 

    • This can lead to boys feeling under-valued and underachieving. 

  • Impact on Achievement: 

    • It makes them feel undervalued and leading to underachievement, as traditional masculine traits may not be adequately nurtured in such an environment; this can manifest through disruptive behaviour, lack of engagement, and lower academic performance compared to girls 

• Lack of Male Primary Teachers: 

  • Internal Factor 

  • Outline: 

    • This can be a result of social stigmas and gender stereotypes. This can lead to boys not having male role models, which can affect their motivation and aspirations. 

  • Impact on Achievement: 

    • Boys not appreciating the value of education and lacking motivation to excel academically, particularly in primary school. 

• Laddish Sub Cultures: 

  • Internal Factor 

  • Outline: 

    • Groups of boys who reject school norms and values in favour of anti-school behaviours. These behaviours can include being disruptive, rebellious, and avoiding academic work 

  • Impact on Achievement: 

    • They refuse the 'feminised' nature of school, and examinations favouring continuous assessment, which suits girls. Sociologist Mac an Ghaill identified the 'macho lads' who showed a disdain towards academic work, often leading to underachievement. 

• Over Estimation of Ability: 

  • Internal Factor 

  • Outline: 

    • Barber (1996) conducted a study where she assessed a group of students and asked them to rate their own performance. She found that boys tend to overestimate their abilities and believe they can do better than they can, while girls tend to underestimate their abilities and work harder to improve their performance. 

  • Impact on Achievement: 

    • In maths, though, parental overconfidence in boys' skills significantly outstripped their marginally better performance. 

Policies to improve Boys Achievement: 

• Raising Boys Achievement Project: 

  • An initiative aimed at addressing the trend of boys underachieving in education by researching and implementing strategies to improve their academic performance 

• National Literacy Strategy: 

  • A UK government policy introduced in the late 1990s aimed at significantly improving literacy levels in primary schools by providing a structured framework for teaching reading and writing, including a dedicated "Literacy Hour" in the daily timetable, with specific teaching objectives for each term, essentially aiming to address social inequalities in literacy attainment by ensuring consistent, focused teaching across all schools 

• Reading Champions: 

  • A program that aims to promote reading for pleasure in children. It includes a series of books, a national quiz, and in-school challenges. 

• Playing for Success: 

  • A UK-based initiative that aims to improve the literacy, numeracy, and ICT skills of underachieving young people by using the motivating environment of sport 

• Dad’s and Son’s: 

  • Specifically aimed at fathers of 11-14 year old boys, encouraging them to boost their sons' interest in education and learning by taking a greater interest in it themselves 

• Recruitment of Male Teachers: 

  • Having male teachers in primary education can help address the gender gap in academic achievement. Research suggests that boys often benefit from the presence of male teachers, who may connect with them in ways that positively impact their academic performance.