Human Development

developmental psychology

study of how behaviour changes over the life span

human development

the scientific study of age-related changes across physical, cognitive, social, and behavioural domains

lifespan perspective

changes happen throughout the entire human lifespan and must be interpreted in light of the culture and context in which they occur; interdisciplinary research is critical to understanding human development

critical periods

specific periods in development when an organism is especially sensitive to the presence (or absence) of some particular kind of experience

sensitive periods

a span of months or years during which a child may be particularly responsive to specific forms of experience or particularly influenced by their absence

gene-environment interaction

situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed

nature via nurture

tendency of individuals with certain genetic predisopositons to seek our and create environments that permit the expression of those predispositions

gene expression

activation or deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development

cross-sectional design

research desgin that examines people of different ages at a single point in time

cohort effect

effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time

longitudinal design

research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time

post hoc fallacy

false assumption that because one event occurred before another event it must have caused that event

infant determinism

extremely early experiences (especially the first 3 years) are almost always more influential than later experiences in shaping human development (reality: experience depends on the domain; later childhood and adult experiences are important)

childhood fragility

children can be easily damaged by experiences; children, in reality, are very resilient

prenatal

prior to birth

zygote

fertilized egg

blastocyst

ball of identical cells in early pregnancy that haven’t begun to take on any specific function in a body part

embryo

second to eigth week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features, and major organs of the body take form

fetus

period of prenatal development from ninth week until birth after all major organs are established and physical maturation is the primary change

teratogen

an environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development

fetal alcohol syndrome

condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, physical growth retardation, facial malformations, and behavioural disorders

motor behaviour

bodily motion that occurs as a result of self-initiated force that moves the bones and muscles

adolescence

the transition between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage years

puberty

the achievement of sexual maturation resulting in the potential to reproduce

primary sex characteristic

a physical feature such as the reproductive organs and the genitals that distinguish the sexes

secondary sex characteristic

a sex-differentiating characteristic that doesn’t relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women and deepening voices in men

menarche

start of menstruation

spermarche

boys’ first ejaculation

cognitive development

study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason communicate, and remember

scaffolding

Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children’s learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent

zone of proximal development

phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction

theory of mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe

stranger anxiety

a fear of strangers developing at eight or nine months of age

temperament

basic emotional style that appears in early development and is largely genetic in origin

attachment

the strong emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest

empty-nest syndrome

alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from the home

germinal stage

conception to implantation

embryonic stage

implantation to end of eight week

fetal stage

week nine to birth

neural proliferation

the very rapid generation of neurons that happens

migration

movement of brain cells to permanent location

sickle-cell disease

results in malformations in hemoglobin, cells don’t carry enough oxygen, and don’t distribute oxygen properly— results in attacks of pain

Huntington’s disease

progressive, inherited neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, cognition, and behaviour

secular trend

onset of menarche beginning earlier and earlier

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Stage-based theory of cognitive development, children go through similar patterns or sequences as they develop their thinking

Sensorimotor Stage

birth to 2 years; basic sensory and motor schemes; interaction with environment teaches children about how the physical world operates

Preoperational Stage

2 to 7 years; symbolic schemes are acquired (ie. language); simple problem solving

Concrete Operational Stage

7 to 11 years; logic/reasoning develops but is tied to the physical world; problem solving improves

Formal Operational Stage

12+ years; abstract logic develops; reason hypothetically

schemes

internal cognitive structures that provide an individual with procedures that can be followed in specific circumstances

assimiliation

the process of using schemes to interpret events or experiences

accommodation

change our schemes as a result of new information

equilibration

process of balancing assimilation and accommodation

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory​

Development of personality results from the interaction between internal drives and cultural demands across eight stages or crises​