power and borders CASE STUDY- MALI

Interventions and interactions of organisations at a range of scales- UN, national government, NGOs

UN:

• UN peacekeeping- conflict to peace, provide security

• Guided by 3 basic principles: consent of the parties, impartiality, non use of force except in self defence+ defense of mandate

• MINUSMA (United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali) April 2013 : 12,000 military personnel, 1700 police. 2019-2020 budget US $1.14bil

• AIMS: UN Security Council established UN MINUSMA 2013, ensure security, protect civilians + human rights, restoration of state authority, promoting co-operation between security forces. Operate in main population centres (Timbuktu/Bamako), aims to keep lines of communication between gov + army open, provide humanitarian assistance

• SUCCESSES: brought stabilisation to Mali—> enabled peaceful 2013 election + 2015 peace agreement which support government. GDP per capita slowly growing, periods of peace bring more economic stability- $879 in 2020, $495 in 2015.

• LIMITATIONS: overpowered by Jihadist groups in Northern Mali, MINUSMA focusing too much on central Mali not northern regions, UN accused by Malian gov + Taureg ‘rebels’ (MNLA) of impartiality- 2015 use of helicopters to kill Tuareg fighters to protect UN forces. ½ UN peacekeeping forces killed, conflict ongoing. MINUSMA pulled out of country, Mali became increasingly isolated following militaries most recent coup.

National government (Mali/France):

MALIAN GOVERNMENT: contributed to crisis, through neglect corruption, state weakness, military interference, human rights abuses. Ousted in a coup in 2012- chaos, MNLA (Tauregs) rebels claimed northern cities to liberate Azawad area. Gov asked for foreign military help 2013.

FRENCH GOVERNMENT: french military entered in 2013, 5000 troops sent, operations began against Islamists- Malian military regained control over northern Islamist cities. - Islamists groups trying to advance south towards Bamako like Jihadist groups linked to Al-Quaeda. Rise of these groups due to lack of sovereignty. Withdrew in 2022 due to military coups and demands for them to leave.

NGOs:

• Ban of French NGOs after France announced it would freeze official development aid due to concerns over Mali’s collaboration with Russian Wagner group- French had concerns for human rights violations

• CARE international: CARE has been helping drought, disaster, conflict affected communities since Sahel food crisis in 2012, CARE provides food and nutrition assistance, and raises awareness on safe water and hygiene. Improve food security.

• World Education Mali: addressing educational barriers to literacy

• Population services international: health projects, lower birth rate by giving contraceptive information, family planning advice

SUCCESSES: provided assistance to local communities, 120,000 helped with food insecurity, 36,000 water/sanitation help

LIMITATIONS: funding unreliable, difficult in areas where some armed bandits kidnap NGO workers and diplomats for ransom money.

Consequences of global governance of the conflict for local communities

Examples of global governance: UN, french forces, NGOs

Military intervention may exacerbate already existing inequalities and injustices. it may do this by:

• increased number of civilian casualties- violent attacks by armed groups: 42% of population require humanitarian assistance 2023.

• Displacement of population

• Damage to housing+ infrastructure

• Food insecurity, farmers are unable to grow crops

• Disruption to education- 1600 schools closed

• Escalation of human rights violations

Sovereignty or territorial integrity issue(s)

Separatism:

• Taureg group rebelled in 2012 (national movement for the liberation of Azawad- MNLA), started armed conflict with Mali gov, by April 2012 Tuaregs declared Azawad as independent state

• Tuaregs across different countries, not just in Mali- little regard for tribal lands when borders were decided

• Bamako national government marginalised and neglected Tuaregs. Most recent military coup in 2012 caused by dissatisfaction with government for ineffective governance of the North

Terrorism+ extremist activity:

• attacks on Malian and regional military forces and Un and French peacekeeping forces by Islamist groups

• lack of sovereignty caused rise of Jihadist groups linked to Al-Quaeda.

• Trafficking of people occurred across porous borders between Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso

• Schools targeted- reduce access to education and increases vulnerability to sex exploitation, forced labour + recruitment of children to armed forces.

Global governance strategy(ies) used

UN stabilisation Mission- MINUSMA

• Restoration of state authority/ rule of law

• Protection of civilians/ human rights

• Promoting co-operation between security forces

Malian government + regional organisations

• national military government supported by ECOWAS (economic community of west African states)- regional body supporting peace processes and sanctions to influence political developments

French troops:

• 5000 troops, significant

IRC (international rescue committee) helping country recover

• IRC started work in Mali in 2012

• Providing emergency relief

• Providing clean drinking water

• Healthcare services

• Children + parents provided with psychological support- heal from trauma

NGOs like CARE- reduce food insecurity

Opportunities for stability, growth, development

Global governance strategies create opportunities to increase stability by:

• preserving Malis territorial integrity, restoring sovereign state control + rule of law in centre and north

• Ensuring peaceful, legal and democratic national elections- stability in Mali

• Protecting civilians through improved security and reduction in terrorist activity

• NGOs assist local communities.

• UN Security Council established MINUSMA 2013- stablise Mali, provide security

Achieve growth by:

• strengthening governance of mining sector- gold is main export- for economic growth

• Incorporating north into national economy by accelerating infrastructure projects such as rural electrification

• Encouraging youth training schemes- provide skills for employment

Further development by tackling:

• health- improving access to health facilities, reducing food insecurity, improving living conditions, disease protection

• Education- increasing school enrolment, training teachers, reducing school attacks by terrorist groups

• Poverty- helping subsistence farmers to become more resilient using sustainable techniques

Challenges of inequality and injustices

Inequality:

• globally, Mali is one of the poorest and least developed countries HDI 0.427- 184th

• High level of income inequality and serious gender inequality

• Inequalities between north- poorly funded and limited service provision

• Linguistic divisions between ethnic groups- challenge for peace

• Urban-rural contrasts, inequalities in infrastructure and access to services like health, electricity, water supply

Injustices:

• government inability to protect citizens from human rights abuses- women and children subject to lots of domestic and agricultural work, child marriage, FGM

• Government inability to police country+ provide security against extremist activity: people trafficking, rape, burning of schools, drug smuggling

• People fleeing violence displaced internally or in neighbouring countries

• Poor access to education- especially for girls. Low adult literacy rate

• High infant mortality, maternal mortality, adolescent birth rate.

• Low life expectancy (58,9 yrs in 2018)