Unit 2

Consolidation definition

Taking over places to protect what you already have

Dutch Gold Coast

1872
Britain purchases it

3rd Anglo-Ashanti war

1873-4
Wanted to protect the coastal territory

4th Anglo-Ashanti war

26th December 1895 to 4th February 1896
1. Ashanti turned down an unofficial offer to become a British protectorate in 1891 - 1894
2. Britain wanted to establish resident in Kumasi
3. Ashanti King Prempeh refused
4. Britain wanted to keep French and German out of Ashanti because of Gold
5. Ashanti sent delegation to London offering concessions on its gold, cocoa and rubber as well as submission to the crown
6. British military was already on its way
7. Colonel Sir Frances Scott left cape coast and then British and West Indian troops arrived in Kumasi in January 1896
8. Major Robert Baden-Powell led native levy of several local tribes
9. The Asantehene directed Ashanti not to resist
10. Britain suffered casualties as a result of sickness 9 dead
11. Prempeh was unable or unwilling to pay 50,000 ounces of gold so was arrested and deposed - forced to sign treaty of protection with other Ashanti leaders and was sent to exile in Seychelles
12. British force left Kumasi on January 22nd 1896
13. Arrived back on the coast 2 weeks later

5th Ashanti war

1. technology began to reach the Gold Coast - railway begun in Kumasi in 1898
2. "war of the Golden Stool" 25th March 1990 -\> British retreated to a small stockade where they defended themselves (8 Europeans, 12 Colonial administrators, 500 Hausas)
3. Rescue party of 700 arrived in June but many of the men were sick so couldn't be evacuated
4. they managed to avoid 12,000 Ashanti warriors back to the coast
5. 14th July a second relief force of 1,000 made it to Kumasi and relieved the fort of 15 July

War of the Golden stool cause

A conflict created by British ignorance, they do not respect what the Ashanti hold very important to them - Sir Federick Mitchell Hodgson sat on the Golden stool not understanding it was royal and sacred to Ashanti

Casualties of the 5th Ashanti war

Britain and the allies - 1070
Ashanti - 2000

Sierra Leone

Britain extended Sierra Leone to include Hinterland in the Protectorate in 1896 after they agreed it with France

North Ashantiland

Was brought under British protectorate in 1896
8 chiefs agreed not to deals without British consent

Niger region

Royal Niger Company was active in searching the Northern Emirates for trade
Resistance from African middlemen and Liverpool merchants who had already made links in Niger
RNC resorted to arms to overcome native resistance

German and French threat

- France began to take closer interests in Upper Niger
- 1894 Federick Lugard was dispatched northwards by George Goldie to make deals with chiefs to bring under British protection
- French expedition set off at the same time, attempted to seize control of the Nile restoring its own sphere of influence pre-1882- Germany also planning one
- June 1898 agreement

West African Frontier Force

Set up as a result of threat from German and French powers
Under Lugard commands

June 1898 agreement

Niger Boundary settlement
Gave Britain control over land they did not own yet - Sokoto

Why did the French and German complain with the RNC

Thought the RNC went against the Berlin conference (no monopolies and free navigation of the Niger)
- RNC argued that they needed to add taxes as they owned the whole area
- the company was not ruling in the native African's interests

Ending of the RNC

1899
All its territories passed to the government in exchange for £865,000

rivalries in Africa

France - were setting up expeditions and wanted more control in the Niger
Germany - began expeditions to create more treaties
Land was sandwiched between Germany and France

Why was India so important to Britain

Economic importance - India took up 25% of Lancashire's cotton exports
Defence - Army of 200,000 soldiers paid for by Indian government
Manpower and expertise - Indian workers and merchants travelled to work over the Empire

Effects India up to 1890

Railways - allowed people to travel, move goods and soldiers
Education - 1885 Indian National Congress, sense of nationalism, Western oriental gentleman

The Ilbert Bill (1883)

White Mutiny
"the exercise of jurisdiction over European British subjects"
If it was passed it would allow Indian judges and juries to pass rulings over Europeans
Outcry from British
Eventually passed so jury would have to be 50% Europeans

Indian National Congress (INC)

Set up in 1885 by the British to voice grievances.
Mostly high caste Indians (uni-educated)
Emphasised their loyalty to Britain but wanted ICS opened to them, a bar to India becoming a fully integrated member of the Empire, and more voice in the provinces
1892 Councils Act allowed more elected positions on provincial councils
Advocated home rule

How was India administered

Secretary of State for India based in GB
Viceroy based in India. Below him was the Indian Civil service with around 1,000 people in the Indian Civil Service
In 1890, only 30 were Indian and this barely doubled by 1916
Literate Indians - around 700k in 1901

Viceroy Curzon

Appointed by Salisbury who wanted him to stand up to Russia
Thought that without India Britain would be a "third class power"
· "Keynote of British policy in India has always been to conserve all the best features in the fabric of native society"
Was not outwardly westernising but did not truly include Indians in the government
Was 39 when he arrived in India
Reformed India, improving communications, developing irrigation, relieving famine, spreading education

Changes Curzon made to India's administration

Got rid of heavy restraints of Indian industry, heavy taxation - lowered taxes
Founded the Imperial Cadet Corps in 1901
Reformed universities and police - created divide between educated Indians and illiterate's in the rural
Adopted gold standard to ensure stable currency
Attempted to divide Bengal in 1905
Introduced representative government at provincial level in 1909
limited the size of civil service as it was so expensive
Set up new Commerce and Industry Department
Denied self-rule
Made economic and social developments through taxation

Servants of India Society 1905

Among the community at bottom of the caste system.
Humanitarian groups wanted to see reform

Imperial Cadet Corps

Gave native princes and elite figures military training and special officer commissions

Commerce and Industry Department

Promoted Industry and Agriculture department sponsoring research and overseeing establishment of agricultural banks:
- included preservation of ancient monuments to railway expansion an irrigation

Defence of India 1901

North-West Frontier Province created to protect border from Russian incursions
Temporary invasion of Tibet 1903-1904 to counter Russian ambitions in the area

Province of Bengal

Population of 78 million, mix of Muslims and Hindus
India's largest province

Partition of Bengal

July 1905
Split into East (Muslim) and West (Hindu)
Officially carried out in October

Reaction to the Partition

Hindu's were annoyed as they owned land in the East which they leased to Muslim peasants
Hindus saw partition as a pay-back for criticisms of British rule
INC began to become a nationalist movement
Viceroy Curzon resigned as a result of the failure
Bengalis see it as a direct attack on ancient regional boundaries
INC led protests, speeches, boycotts
Prompted most nationalist opposition to Raj
Boycott of British goods and organised street demonstrations

Justification of the partition by British government

Hindu/Muslim division so partition was a means of avoiding religious conflict
Bengal was too big and wanted to improve administrative efficiency

Reunited of Bengal

1911 by Lord Hardinge secretary of state
Used the visit of king emperor George V to India in 1911 as an opportunity to reunite Bengal in 1911 -\> First and only British monarch to visit the Raj

All Indian Muslim League

Political organization founded in India in 1906 to defend the interests of India's Muslim minority. Led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it attempted to negotiate with the Indian National Congress.

Admin post-Curzon

Replaced by Viceroy Minto in 1905 who viewed self-government for India as a "fantastic, ludicrous dream"
Took strong repressive measures including deportations and passed laws to control the press and curb public meetings
Viceroy Morley pressed Secretary of State Minto to release as many political prisoners as possible

Morley-Minto reforms

Following discussions between John Morley, Secretary of State for India (1905-14), and Lord Minto, viceroy (1905-10).
Introduced a limited programme of reforms in 1909 to attempt to appease the Bengalis
Indian Council act 1909
Further democratic reform in 1910 meant meant 135 Indians were able to play a greater part in government at provincial level

Indian Council act 1909

Provided for greater Indian participation in the government:
- an Indian was appointed viceroy's executive council in India
- two Indians were appointed to secretary of state's Indian council in London
- more Indians were added to imperial legislative council- 27 of its 60 members were elected rather than appointed by viceroy
- provincial legislative councils had more elected Indian members
- imperial and provincial legislatures were permitted to debate budgetary matters

reaction to Indian Council Act

Managed to reassure
Indian Civil Service
Was welcomed by Indian moderates

George V visit to the Raj

Crowned Emperor of India and a grand celebratory durbar was held in 1911 in a display of both powers and pageantry design

Who replaced Minto and Morley in 1910

Secretary of State \= Lord Hardinge
Viceroy \= Lord Crewe

British rule of Indian Home rule

Neither the Secretary of State nor Viceroy supported Congress's demands for Home Rule
In public, Lord Hardinge appeared sympathetic towards congress but privately saw the leader (Gokhale) as the "most dangerous enemy of British rule in this country"

Changes made by Lord Hardinge and Lord Crewe

Reunited Bengal
Moved the capital from Calcutta to Delhi

Nationalism in India

As Indians became more educated political opposition to British rule grew
Growing number of nationalists newspapers e.g. Kesari or Kaal - founders were imprisoned
Young India organisation founded by brothers Vinayak and Ganesh in 1903.
Hardinge was badly injured in a bomb attack as he made a state entry to Delhi in 1912

Tilak and Paranjape

Tilak - Editor of Kesari
accused of inciting the murder of medical officer. Forefront of Swadeshi movement. Influenced Gandhi
Paranjape - Founder of Kaal was arrested for sedition in 1908
Paranjape served 19 months of imprisonment with hard labour and once he was released in 1910 British authorities banned the publication of Kaal

Young India organisation

Became the home for several hundred revolutionaries and political activists.
Established branches in various parts of India.
Carried out assassinations of British officials

How resistance was spread in India

Newspapers - Kesari, Kaal
Groups - INC, Muslim League, Young India
Swadeshi - boycott British goods
Terrorism - 1912 bomb attack murder of Curzon ...

INC reaction to the Councils Act

"They are just the opposite of reforms. The avowed object of the so-called reforms is to destroy the influence of the educated classes"

Congress before 1900 India

Congress members preferred Gokhale's moderate approach

Congress after 1900 India

Congress leaders were now increasingly critical of the Raj
e.g. Gokhale was an admirer of British liberalism and pressed for gradual introduction of self-government for India similar to Canada (dominion)
Tilak - admired the national heritage of India and stressed how it had been destroyed by British rule - sympathetic to extreme forms of nationalist protests

Problems with Indian nationalists

India was still deeply divided in religious terms 70% Hindus, 21% Muslims and the remaining were Jews, Christians and Sikhs
Was a slow process as a result of the division
Each Indian province had its own history, language, customs

India entering WWI

Viceroy Hardinage declared war on India's behalf in August 1914 without consulting India - tested India's commitment to British rule
For the most part Indian population accepted and supported Britain's efforts -\> 1.3 million Indians served but raised hopes of a new deal for India

Status of Egypt in 1890

Veiled protectorate
Suez canal brought prosperity to Egypt
1882 Egyptian nationalists riot

veiled protectorate definition

When a country run another countries affairs and advisers are there to keep watch over all aspects of the government but still belongs to another country

Capitulations

previous sultans agreed for foreigners to have to right to be tried over own countries laws not laws set in Egypt by British - Any new laws had to go through a number of European countries that represented Egypt. I.e. Britain didn't have the ability to create laws without agreement of other countries

Caisse de la Dette

Institution created by the governments of European creditors to oversee the repayment of debts owed their citizens in the wake of the Egyptian bankruptcy of 1876

What did the mixed court control

Laws
Money
Justice

mixed courts: justice

Oversaw cases involving both Egyptians and Europeans presided over by Europeans and Egyptians

Mixed courts: money

Consisted of main European powers (Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Britain) and oversaw the Egyptian finances.
Was set up to supervise the repayments of Egypt's loan to build the Suez Canal.
Members could prevent the Consul-General from spending money on things they disapproved on

Mixed courts: law

Granted by previous Sultans - Foreigners had the right to be tried under their own country's laws, any new law affecting Europeans had to be approved by all countries that represent Egypt

Khedive's 1879 - 1914

Mohammed Tewfik Pasha (1879 - 1892)
Abbas (1892 - 1914)

Sultan's 1878 - 1918

Abdul Hamid (1876 - 1909)
Mehmed V (1909 - 1918)

Consul-general role

Acted as an adviser to the Khedive
Had a partially-elected parliament consisting of an advisory council of laws and a general assembly. All Egyptian ministers had support of British advisers:
- If they resisted British advise they could be dismissed
Main task was to try to regularise Egyptian financial affairs

Consul-general Evelyn Baring changes

1883 - 1907
Made cutbacks to Egypt's military and bureaucracy
Revitalised the economy by improving communications and investing in irrigation schemes
Improved conditions for Egyptian labourers and introduced better sanitation and health series in town
Improved conditions for Egyptian labourers and introduced better sanitation and health series in town
Under his supervision cotton and sugar exports had trebled
Reformed the army - put 6,000 British troops, put Kitchener in command of the army
Made changed to courts, police, education

Consul-general Sir Eldon Gorst

1907 - 1911
Brought more Egyptians into responsible government positions in attempt to weaken the Egyptians national party
Tried to impose a tighter censorship of press in 1909
Used penal measures to attempt to quell growing nationalism

Consul-general Viscount Herbert Kitchener

1911 - 1914
Hero of the Boer war
Former Army commander-in chief
British dominance increased
1913 - new legislative assembly replaced the advisory council of laws and general assembly
Deposed the ruling Khedive as he was an ally of the Ottoman Sultan

1913 new legislative assembly

Consisted of 66 elected members and 17 appointed nominees -\> represent rich landowners rather than ordinary people

Gorst vs Baring

Gorst was less representative of Egyptians who was harder on suppressing the nationalist movement
Baring benefitted Egyptians and tried to stabilise Egypt

nationalism in Egypt

1890s: growing middle class nationalist movement fuelled by newspapers saying the British government were not helping Egypt's poor:
- failed to promote Egyptian cloth industry
Nationalists complained of the lack of the opportunities for education in Egypt
National party was formed

National party Egypt

Formed in 1881 and revived in 1893 as a secret society.
Attracted Egyptian lawyers and professionals. Sought the end of British occupation and their own representative government

How did Cromer respond to nationalist demands

Cromer ignored the demands of the national party
But appointed nationalists Pasha as minister for education

Denshawi incident 1906

A series of misunderstandings between British officers and Egyptian villagers which was watched by the national press
13th June - British officers (Ghali) hunted pigeons for sport
British officer "unintentionally" fired his gun and wounded a female villager. Also fired twice more
Officers chased by the villagers - one officer collapsed because of the heat and died outside of the camp -\> when a villager tried to help but a British soldier killed them
14th June 1906 - 52 men arrested - 4 men sentenced to death, flogging and hard labour.
Egyptian policemen who testified on behalf of villagers were given 2 years imprisonment and 50 lashes

Actions of individuals or Empire

- All representing same empire, and all faces same issues- not able to do policies out of conflict
- All implement negligible reform in face of nationalism
- Same pattern with all of them
- Main aim is to ensure British interests so that they protect Egypt
- Benefit of Egyptian isn't intended- just a by-product
- Britain's actively trying to supress something then it is inevitable Egypt would want to break out

Pigeons to assassination

20th February 1910 - Ghali was shot by Ibrahim Nassif al Wardani
Was the first series of assassinations that continued until 1915

Ibrahim Nassif al Wardani

Killed Ghali
Had been educated in Lausanne Paris and London
Was a member of Pasha's Watani Party

How the Empire was run politically

Dominions - had their own government chosen through elections. Britain had spaces reserved for themselves
Elite groups - indirect rule network, got local people to govern for them

How the Empire was run

Modernising \= India - railways, dams. Egypt - Health reforms, sanitisation, irrigation schemes
Political reforms \= Egypt - 27/66 of the Egyptian government elected. India - Indian National Congress, had a greater say in the government, 27 elected to council
Lack of consideration for local practics

How Britain controlled the nationalism

India + Egypt - education was limited, censorship, some threat
Strict rule/ repression - censorship in newspapers, partition of Bengal

British native policy

Reacted according to time and circumstances

Most successful forms of native rule

In settler colonies that were white due to European migration. Natives were treated as second-class citizens and white elites were in charge of self-governing colonies

Examples of self-governing colonies

South Africa's Cape Colony - 1872
Canada (semi-independence) - 1867
United South Africa - 1910

Self-governing colonies

Britain only had symbolic control as they did not have control the administration or costs of the government.
Local elites and sympathises to British were used to facilitate British rule. Notables or large landowners gained titles whilst co-operative middle classes were also favoured with positions in administration.
In larger areas they relied on Chiefs to exercise governance which was usually rewarded with land. -\> cheapest way

Free trade

international trade free of government interference
Britain could sell more if there were no tariffs

Why was trade important to the Empire

- money generated helped defend Britain and the Empire
- allowed Britain to expand the Empire
- Created a sense of unity between metropole and the rest of Empire
- Invisible trade was more important than visible
- imports from the Empire doubled from 1860 - 1900
- power

1895 trade worries

- Have to expand in order to have power
- Other countries are catching up to trade so they will have to find new markets
- by 1890 exports of cotton and textiles are going down
- Overtaken in steel production by US and Germany
By 1900 its imports were greater in value than its exports (trade deficit) \> therefore key to expand overseas and find new markets etc

Trade and commerce overview

General assumption the Empire would make Britain wealthy was a fallacy
Britain had a disproportionate amount of trade and investment in its own colonies -\> between 1900 - 1914 6 fold increase in Canadian land set aside for British wheat production

How much of Britain exports and imports did India account for

Exports \= 20%, £150 million
Imports \= Raw cotton, tea

Imports from the Empire

SA, Australia \= wool and Sugar
New Zealand \= dairy produce and lamb
Canada \= wheat, 10% of British beef, 15% of its wheat flour
West Africa - Timber, Cocoa, rubber, peanuts, palm oil

Imports and exports percentages

Imports - 75.1% other countries, 24.9% Empire
Exports - 62.8%, 37.2%

Imperial federation league

Established in 1884 to promote closer colonial ties was disbanded in 1893 -\> showed Empire's lack of commercial importance

Signs the Empire was less significant than expected

British trade was growing with the non-imperial world i.e. USA -\> In 1894, Britain had imported 64 million hundredweight of wheat - 30.7m from USA, 17.2m from Russia and only 3.6m from Canada
Empire provided less than 10% of Empires total trade in 1896 only £183 million out of £745 million
Imperial Federation League was disbanded
- 1897, the Tropical Africa took only 1.2% of British exports and over the ensuing years the colonies bought increasing amounts from foreign nations, rather than Britain
Huge costs that outweighed the returns

Who was paying for the Empire

Middle class people
- cost of Imperial defence in their taxes
- failed to modernise the British industry
- holding back developments that would raise living standards for workers

Why was Britain's economic dominance under threat by 1890s

- Decline in Britain's old export staples of cotton and woollen textiles
- USA and Germany had taken over Britain in steel production
- By 1900 imports were greater than exports "trade defecit"

Chamberlain

Colonial Secretary and Secretary of State for the Colonies
Prime Minister from 1895 - 1906
Lost the following election
Initiated the Uganda railway and supervised the acquisition of the territories of the Royal Niger Company
Won the Boer war
Believed Imperial bonds needed reinforcing.
Proposed imperial defence and customs union. - Wanted to promote tropical trade and investment into less profitable areas of the Empire.
Wanted Imperial preference -\> so not very popular
Died from a stroke in 1906

Imperial Preference

A system of commerce created by lowering import taxes between areas of an empire, while increasing taxes on imports from countries outside the empire.

Jameson Raid (1895)

British government hoped the settlers in Transvaal would rebel with the intention that British forces would aid the rebellion. No rebellion ever materialized and the British forces were driven back
Big failure

Cecil Rhodes

Prime minister of Cape Colony 1890-96
Resigned after the Jameson Raid
Annexed a lot of territory around the Zambezi River (Rhodesia)
Owned 90% of global diamond production
Wanted to create a trainline from Cape to Cairo
Killed a lot of people
His funds helped to promote the British Empire after his death.
Quite popular

Alfred Milner

British High Commissioner in south Africa from 1897
Took over administration of Orange Free State and the Transvaal in 1901 when they were annexed
Resigned from SA and returned to England in 1913

Positives of Alfred Miner

+ Founded a series of English speaking Milner schools in Pretoria and Johannesburg
+ negotiated the Peace of Vereeniging
+ Made a baron in 1901
+ Made a Viscount in 1902
+ After the Boer war him and "Milner's Kindergarten" worked to resettle the Boers & promote economic growth
+ Introduced English language education program
+ Took Britain into the next Boer war after Kruger was re-elected as President of the Transvaal in February 1898

Alfred Milner negatives

- demanded full citizenship rights for Uitlanders after 5 years of residence -\> had decided to use force to get his way
- Declared the Boer War in October 1899
- Convinced of British superiority over Boers and Afrikaans
- Decided to use Chinese labourers on 3 year contracts to make up for lack of workers in 1904

Curzon

Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905 (resigned)
Prevented Russian expansion by creating the North-West frontier province. Wanted to strengthen India.
Was mainly concerned with the state of British East India.
Led the partition of Bengal in 1904.
Followed Conservative imperialism.
Not popular within the Muslim community but was popular with certain Indians as he provided famine relief and irrigation programs. Also improved the police force, education and railway tracks.

Evelyn Baring

Consul General of Egypt between 1883 and 1907.
Returned to Britain in 1907 and and devoted himself to preventing women's political rights as president of the Men's League for Opposing Women's Suffrage.
Forced to resign after the Denshawi incident.
Created the Granville doctrine