ALL AP PSYCH TERMS!

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 38)

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 42)

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 42)

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 43)

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 44)

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 45)

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 50)

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 51)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 50)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 50)

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 53)

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 53)

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 55)

placebo

effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 55)

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 55)

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 56)

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 56)

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 56, 636)

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 62)

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 62)

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 66)

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 68)

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 68)

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 68, 635)

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 71)

empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 7)

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 11)

cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 13)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 13)

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 18)

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 18)

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 24)

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct and to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Meta-Analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Falsifiability

the principle that states that a research hypothesis must be able to be disproven.

Sample

refers to a smaller group of individuals that are selected from a larger population in order to represent and generalize findings

Representative sample

a chosen group of participants that would closely resemble the total population.

Convenience sampling

a non-random, non-systematic method of selecting a sample of individuals or cases based on their availability or chance

Generalizability

the process of extending research findings from a sample group to a larger population. It's a measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations.

Single-blind procedure

when the subjects do not know all of the information about the study while it is occurring, especially which group (experimental or control) they belong to

Social desirability bias

the bias or tendency of individuals to present themselves in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

Qualitative

collecting and evaluating non-numerical data in order to understand concepts or subjective opinions. EX: If there were a group of people in a room, this could describe how they feel, what they look like, what clothes they are wearing, or the motivations of why they're here.

Quantitative

involves collecting and evaluating numerical data.

EX: If there were a group of people in a room, this could describe the number of people in the group, their age, or the temperature in the room.

Peer Review

an evaluation process where scholars or researchers assess each other's work before it gets published.

Directionality Problem

in correlational research, the situation in which it is known that two variables are related although it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect.

Self-report bias

a methodological problem that arises when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors rather than measuring these directly and objectively.

Informed Assent

an ethical principle that requires participants in human studies to agree to participate (although they cannot legally consent for reasons such as age) and understand the study's expectations and purpose before participating.

Protection from harm

An ethical principle that ensures participants in a study are not subjected to physical or psychological harm.

Confidentiality

an ethical principle that states that experimenters should not release information about research subjects without their consent.

Deception

any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others.

Research confederates

in an experimental situation, an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment.

Bimodal distribution

a set of scores with two peaks or modes around which values tend to cluster, such that the frequencies at first increase and then decrease around each peak.

Percentile Rank

the percentage of individuals in the distribution with scores at or below the particular value.

Effect size

any of various measures of the magnitude or meaningfulness of a relationship between two variables.

Third variable problem

the fact that an observed correlation between two variables may be due to the common correlation between each of the variables and a third variable rather than any underlying relationship (in a causal sense) of the two variables with each other.

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 326)

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 327)

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 327)

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 327)

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system— for example, by extracting meaning. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 329)

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 329)

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 329)

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 329)

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 329)

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 329)

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 329)

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 330)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 330)

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 331)

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 331)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 332)

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 332)

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 333)

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 333)

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 334)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 20, 335)

shallow processing (shallow encoding)

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 335)

deep processing (deep encoding)

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 335)

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 340)

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 340)

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 340)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 342)

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 346)

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 347)