1890 - 1914 British Empire

How did the British consolidate their control of Africa?

• Strategic (Egypt in Suez Canal)

• Economic (Profit)

• Moral (Racial Superiority)

• European Rivalry (German, France)

Egypt 1895

Salisbury becomes PM; re-conquers Sudan, concerned over other countries surrounding (European Rivalry) → Called Sudan ‘Unprofitable’

Egypt 1896

• Italian forces defeated; uses excuse to attempt taking Abyssinia and campaign to invade Sudan → it calls public aid to Italy & uphold European civilisation

• Appointment of Kitchener as Commander-in-Chief of Egyptian army → tries to take Dongala & Khartoum

Egypt 1897

• French expedition led up the Nile by Marchand

• Kitchener faces Sudanese at Omduman → massacre of 27000 Sudanese ansars + looting Khartoum, MPs opposed paying Kitchener for Sudanese massacre

Egypt 1899

• Kitchener ordered to go against Marchand in Fashoda → Extra massacre

• Anglo-Egyptian Sudan established under a British Govenner General

Cape Colony 1867

Economic interest in South African diamonds discovered in Grimsby

Cape Colony 1871 - 91

• Huge investment

• Exports of £9.5M per year

• 2000m railway constructed

Cape Colony 1879

Frere & Shepstone led war against Zulus; Won at poor cost → £4.9M spent, 17000 reinforcements sent

Cape Colony 1880

Bartle Frere sacked & replaced by Wolsey

Cape Colony 1880 - 81

Boer rebellion against what they realised was a permenant state of control → Defeat of British, led to Convention of Pretoria

Cape Colony 1880 - 90

Period of Boer expansion, increased power in region

Cape Colony 1886

• Discovery of Gold → ¼ world's gold supplies

• Economic shift away from Cape to Transvaal = £8M revenue (richest government in Africa)

Cape Colony 1891

Cecil Rhodes establishes BSAC & begins monopoly on diamonds

Cape Colony 1893

Raid led by the King of Mashonaland, on villages near British settlements

Cape Colony 1893 - 94

First Matabele war against British control

Cape Colony 1894 - 95

Fear of German intervention & control in Transvaal region → due to creating connection to the sea, where German ships were with support

Jameson Raid 1895 (Dec)

Raid carried out by Dr Jameson (w/ the backing of Cecil Rhodes) from British Rhodesia w/ help of English Uitlanders in Rhodesia/ Bechuanaland (Response to British fear of German expansion)

No official government support was given - expected to start an uprising, but lacked support of natives due to being blocked by Transvaal soldiers

Jameson Raid 1896 (Jan)

• British forced to surrender against Transvaal → Raid failed, due to Transvaal govt knowing prior to raid

• Rhodes & accomplices sent back to Britian and tried; Rhodes withdrew from public after failure

Connection between Public Schools and Britsh Empire

• Public school system corresponded with British perspectives of modern imperialism, acting as propagandists of British imperialism

• Had hierarchical structure and drilled regimental discipline into students - similar to means of suppression employed in Asia & Africa

• Contributed in making governance of Empire more efficient - due to those in power having gone to these schools previously

India 1876

Establishment of India Association

• Group of English-speaking, educated, Indian professionals demanding grater equality of opportunity fo Indians employed in the civil service

• Encouraged Indian scholarship and teaching

India 1885

Indian National Congress established

• Allowed the Indian middle class to be able to air their grievances

• Official opposition to British rule → would become national political party

• Gained support if the educated Indians → divided between moderates & extremists

India (Jan) 1898

Lord Curzon appointed Viceroy of India

• Viewed position as stepping stone to becoming PM ‘imperialist heart & soul'

• Believed Britain was in India to stay; hostile towards INC

• Desired implementation of reforms to keep Britain in India ‘for at least another hundred years'

India 1899 - 1901

Major reform programmes introduced by Curzon

• Porgrame of economic and administrative reforms

• Improvements of infrastructure, encourageed Br investment

• Lowered taxes

• Introduction of rupee to gold standard

• Partition of Bengal, fo administrative efficiency

India 1903 - 4

Invasion of Tibet

• Invaded by Russia, on the Northern Indian Border

• Lead to creation of North West Frontier Province, to defend against Russian invasion through Afghanistan

India (July - October) 1905

Partition of Bengal & its impacts

• considered too big to be governed effectively

• Partitioned into East & West Bengal → insulting the unified cultrual identity of Bengal

• Resulted in protests; terror attacks & forced a change in government

India (Nov) 1905

Lord Minto replaces Curzon as Viceroy of India & Johen Morley appointed as Secretary of State for India

• Liberals take office in UK

• Believe Indian self-government ‘fantastic, ludicrous dream’

India 1905 - 10

First phase of Liberal reforms introduced in India (Morley-Minto reforms)

• 1909 Indian Councils Act → Viceroy Council; 27/60 reps Indian (preserving BR majority + franchise for voting in small)

• 1910 Direct election for local councils → Enlarged provincial councils + 135 Indian reps + Separate muslim councils = ensure representation for minority

India 1907

Anglo-Russian Convention

• Entente signed - creation of triple entente (ww1)

• Acknowledging sphere of influence in Asia (Br = India, USSR = Afgan)

India 1910

Lord Hardinge replaces Minto as Vicceroy of India (liberal reforms continue under his Viceroyship)

• Works w/ INC, moderate leader Gokhale

• Moving of Capital to Delhi; geographically central & protection from Hindu nationalist unrest

India 1911

King Emperor George V visits India + Reunification of Bengal

• Imperial procession + integration of princely rulers to increase support

India 1912

Islington Commission - recommended Indianisation of highest civil service → allow further progressionof pacification

India (Aug) 1914

Outbreak of WW1 - Britain declare war onbehalf of India

Egypt 1885 - 1905

Lord Cromer (Evelyn Baring), Consul-General

• est. Grandville Doctrine - Egyptians ministers which disagree can be forced to resign

Egypt 1907 - 1911

Sir Eldon Gorst as Consul-General - foreign office tries to improce relations with Khedive to try to pacify nationalist threats

Egypt 1911 - 1914

Lord Kitchener Consul-General

• alienated Khedive, but made not progress towards Self-government

• Introduction of new legislative assembly in 1913; 66 elected officials, 17 appointed nominees

Role of Khedives in Egypt 1890 - 1914

Khedive Government policy aimed to exploit European resources to establish effective independence from Ottoman Empire

Military Reforms in Egypt 1890 - 1914

Kitchener's changes to the Egyptian army; 6000 British soliders, British army permanently stay there

‘Condominium’ of Sudan 1899

Condominium government placed Sudan under joint rule by Egypt and Britain, with Britain actively ruling Egypt

Entente Cordiale 1904

Anglo-French entente, to gain support from France against Germany and religious tensions towards SE Asia. France recognised British control of Egypt and Sudan, due to Fashoda 1898, when British recognized French control of Morocco

Formal Protectorate (Nov) 1914

Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and imposed a new ruler as a response to Turkey's support for Germany

Caisse de la Dette Publique 1876 - 1904

Public debt organisation, organised by four chief bond holding European powers set up to make sure bonds held were paid & 50% of revenue goes to Egypt

Law of Liquidation 1880

To divide up Egyptian revenue for European powers; Use the situation for France and gave London a steak in the probability pf the regime, with full financial settlement

Agricultural reforms, Egypt 1890 - 1914

• Agricultural exports, supplying essential public work, pay rises, government revenue & attracting foreign capital 1/7 land distribution

• Pushes for more cotton production; 76% - 93% single crop economy

• Couldn't keep up with demands for food = rise in importation & food shortages amongst peasants

• Shift to cash crops over subsistence crops

• Land sold off to foreigners; 12% to France + Britain took farming land & brought a rise in irrigation

Industrial reforms, Egypt 1890 - 1914

• Created stronger bonds with British production and gave new direction to society.

• Refused to protect local industries, except cotton, sugar and soap. Foreign own industries taxed exceptions = Capitalisation (British-owned not Egyptian, not subject to Egyptian law.

• British also exempted from Sharia law because they’re not Muslim

• Forced British-Egyptian trade = 63% exports + 31% imports were British

Aswan Dam 1902

Regulating the flooding of the Nile. Cost 2 Million pounds & took 6 yrs

Legal System (Mixed Courts) Egypt 1890 - 1914

Egyptian vs foreigners in commercial litigation (business disputes), Egyptian & foreign judges however Egyptians cannot oversee trial of a foreigner if they're being sued, allowed more western laws + restricted Sharia law

Education Egypt 1890 - 1914

Refusal for public schools after India, desire to avoid same outcome where mainly elite were educated; instead provided few years of primary school and some westernised university courses

Rise of Nationalism, Egypt 1890 - 1914

• Khedive Abbas II encouraged nationalism

• Seditious newspapers

• Nationalist party in 1881, by 1893 became secret

• peasant discernment against taxation

Denshawi incident, 1906

British soldiers shooting pigeons in Deanshawi - killing off a food supply → a British Soldier accidentally shot an Egyptian official’s wife & while fleeing the scene another solider died of heatstroke = British accuse Egyptian of murder & 52 people jailed + 5 convicted for murder

Egyptian Tourism 1890 - 1914

• Rise in no. of foreign people settling in Egypt

• Thomas Cook est. major travel company

• Becomes popular British holiday destination

Benefits of Empire

• Canada supplied 10% of Britain's beef & 15% wheat → increased 6x between 1900 - 1914

• 20% of British exports were to India (disproportionate trade) → £150 mil by 1914

• Britain exported 62.8% of goods to non-empire countries & 75.3% imported

• Trade in Empire countries = £183 mil (from £745 mil)

• Empire brought up British Ale; creating competition

Drawbacks of Empire

• Imperial Federation League est. 1884 (to promote closer ties) disbanded 1893; lack of trade interest w/ empire

• 1897 = 1.2% British exports (Africa)

• Size of Empire grew/ Trade w/ Empire was static

• 75% of trade; £745 mil - £185 mil w/ countries outside Empire (e.g. Russia, USA)

• Empire provided less than 10% of foodstuffs

Public attitudes towards Empire

• Celebrated upto 1890s

• 1890 - 1914 challenge Victorian triumphalism → rise of other european powers (German Industrialization, Russia), Rise of nationalism, rise of industrial trading powers

• 2nd Boer War - national efficiency crisis, poor home welfare

National Efficiency Crisis

• 30,000 Boers were able to combat British forces for 2.5 yrs - forced reliance on colony troops

  • 40% of home volunteers unfit for service = 8000/11000 in Manchester, turned away

• due to poor diet & living conditions becoming increasing issues

Outcomes from National Efficiency Crisis

• 1902 - Education Act; raising schooling standards and led to opening of secondary schools

• modernisation of Royal Navy, commiting to new battleship class

• New Centre of technology, scientific and medical excellence @ Imperial College est 1907.

• Implementation of Free School Meals (1906)

Rudyard Kipling

Pro-imperialist; White Man's Burden - 1899

Henry Lambouchere

Anti-imperialist; Brown Man's Burden - 1899

Consequences of the Jameson Raid

• Embarrassment → British Government

• Boers’ attitudes → strengthened their resolve ot resist British intrusion

• Generated a leader → Paul Kruger, became president of the Transvaal + local hero

• Unified Boers → Afrikaaners bond is formed between the Boers living in the Cape

2nd Boer War

1899 - 1902

Political causes for 2nd Boer War

• Dispute of voting rights 41,000 British people (Uitlanders) w/ Boers afraid of them overtaking them & overpowering the Boers

• 1877 - Annexation of the Transvaal

• 1881 - 1st Boer War = successful for the Boers

Economic causes for 2nd Boer War

• 1896 - Transvaal wealthy

• Rand millionaires - owned mines in Transvaal, reliant on Uitlander labour = conflict controlled parts of Dutch EIC

Social causes of 2nd Boer war

dispute over Britain abolishing slavery in the state; Boers est. Transvaal to retain slavery

Individuals caused 2nd Boer War

• Kruger - President of the Transvaal

• Milner - Appointed High Commissioner of SA (Warmonger)

• Chamberlain - Colonial secretary (worsened relations w/ Boers, bc loss of 1st Boer War; appointed Milner to lead negotiations)

Early months of 2nd Boer War

• Series of humiliating defeats by British on Boers (e.g. Kimberly on the Vaal, Ladysmith, Mateking, Spiakap)

• Boers fought w/ 20th Century modern warfare weapons, vs BR w/ 19th Century

Appointment of Robets and Kitchener - 2nd Boer War

Appointed by Br govt. before Boer war, solution was to send more troops to improve supply lines & dispatch Lord Roberts + Kitchener to take command of British War efforts

Guerrilla Campaigns - 2nd Boer War

Scorched Earth Policy; survivors palced into concentration camps - 160,000 women & children → starved w/ poor sanitation

Scorched Earth Policy - 2nd Boer War

• burning of villages, destroying crops, cattle & collecting civilians

  Death Toll - 22,000 (BR), 25,000 (Boer), 12,000 (arbitrary) + 26,000 women & children = 80% under 16

Consequences of 2nd Boer War

• Damage to unionist govt - critique by economists (Hobson), undermined govt

• Growth of Anti-imperialism - vocal on cost of imperialism + national efficiency crisis

• Changes to British Foreign Policy - isolationism allyship = Japan (1902), France (1904), Entente (1907)

• Rise of Anglo-German rivalry

• Review of Br defence system - 450,000 Br troops to 100,000 Boers + Fisher reforms (1904) strengthen naval power + Free School Meals intro

  • End of Pax Britannica

Long-term impact on SA politics - Consequence 2nd boer war

• Rise of Afrikaaner Party - Het Volke Party → eventually results in creation of Apartheid

• South Africa est. 1910

Economic policy, Sierra Leone 1898

Hut Tax = caused nationalist revolts

Uganda 1896

Uganda Railway project - built using slave labour

• Intended to improve transport and communications in East Africa, in order to help make farming and trade profitable

• completed in 1901

Reinvasion of Sudan, 1896

Carried out by Lord Kitchener to “avenge Gordon” and regain territory previously lost due to the Mahdist revolution