PSYC 101 Exam 2

What is learning?

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

What is classical conditioning?

-Learning through association
-Learn to respond to a stimuli

Pavlov's experiment

classical conditioning experiment, making a dog associate the sound of a ringing bell to that of food - making the dog salivate at the sound

Watson's experiment

Little Albert

unconditioned stimulus

-A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
-Ex: the smell of food makes you hungry

Unconditioned response

\-The naturally occurring response to an Unconditioned Stimulus -Ex: Feeling hungry after smelling food

neutral stimulus

-A stimulus that doesn't naturally produce any response

conditioned stimulus

\-Previously neutral stimulus

\- produces conditioned response after being paired with unconditioned stimulus

\-Ex: the sound of the bell made the dogs salivate

conditioned response

A learned response from conditioned stimulus

\-Ex: Fear of driving after being in a car accident

What factors typically affect acquisition?

Order, Timing, and Consistency

stimulus generalization

Tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original Conditioned Stimulus to elicit a Conditioned Response

stimulus discrimination

Ability to differentiate between stimuli

Extinction

-A conditioned response decreases in frequency & disappears
-Ex: A dog owner stops rewarding the dog with treats to extinct its jumping

spontaneous recovery

the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning

extinction burst

The increase in levels of a behavior in the early stages of extinction.

operant conditioning

learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, due to the consequence that follows the behavior

B.F. Skinner

Expanded greatly on Thorndike's work, most of the remaining topics were first identified by Skinner

what is a primary reinforcer?

innately satisfying

What is secondary reinforcer?

becomes satisfying though experience with primary reinforcer

delayed reinforcement

a significant delay in time between the desired response of an organism and the delivery of a reinforcer

immediate reinforcement

when the desired behavior and the delivery of a reinforcer occur very close in time

What is more effective, immediate reinforcement or delayed reinforcement?

immediate reinforcement

Shaping

-The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
-Ex: Babies are reinforced for crawling, then standing, then taking one step, then taking a few steps, and finally for walking.

What is negative reinforcement?

removing stimulus to increase likelyhood of behavior being repeated
-Ex: an annoying noise turns off when the pigeon pecks

What is positive reinforcement?

adding something into the situation that increases the tendency to repeat the preceding behavior
-Ex: pigeon gets food for pecking

What is positive punishment?

adding a stimulus to stop a behavior from happening
-ex: pigeon gets shocked when pecking

What is negative punishment?

removing a stimulus to stop a behavior from happening
-ex: food is removed when pigeon pecks

Pros of Punishment

Temporary suppression may provide opportunity to reinforce more desirable behavior

Cons of Punishment

-Frequently ineffective
-Physical punishment has harmful side-effects
-Does not indicate what to do

What is continuous reinforcement?

When a desired response is reinforced every time it occurs.

What is intermittent reinforcement?

When responses are only occasionally reinforced

How does continuous reinforcement effect the behavior?

it creates a strong association between behavior and response

How does intermittent reinforcement effect the behavior?

-New behavior is less likely to disappear
-produces slower initial learning

What is applied behavior analysis (ABA)?

using the principles of operant psychology to address problems and issues of social importance to people

what is the concept of biological preparedness?

-most organism predisposition to develop associations between certain types of stimuli an responses based on evolutionary survival

Taste aversions

A classically conditioned dislike for, and avoidance of, a specific food whose ingestion is followed by illness.

How does taste aversion violate behaviorists' views of CC?

- violates basic principles

What is it about the development of phobias that demonstrate biological preparedness?

humans are biologically prepared to learn to fear objects and situations that threatened their survival

biological preparedness

referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

What is observational learning?

learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others

Albert Bandura

-studied observational learning
-Bobo doll experiment

What did Albert Bandura's most well-known study demonstrate?

-Bobo doll experiment
-children are able to learn through the observation of adult behavior.

mirror neurons

}Fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior

How are mirror neurons related to observational learning?

support observational learning and promote imitation

What is insight learning?

The process of learning to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known.

Who first identified insight learning?

Wolfgang Kohler

Wolfgang Kohler and the chimps

a gestalt psychologist who became known for his experiments with chimpanzees and insight learning. He believed that by perceiving the whole situation, chimps were able to create novel situations to problems. Through insight, chimps were able to use props in order to retrieve awards

longitudinal

The same individuals are observed over a period of time to track changes related to age

Cross-Sectional

Different individuals of different ages are observed at one point in time to track differences related to age.

pros of longitudinal

•Controls for cohort effects

Pros of Cross-sectional

•Quick
•Inexpensive
•Easy to conduct
•No drop out issue

Cons of longitudinal

•Takes time & Expensive
•Signification effort
•Problems related to selective drop-out

Cons of Cross-sectional

•Can't control for cohort effects (cohorts often have different experiences, so findings not clearly due to age)

three recurrent issues studied by developmental psychologists

-Nature/nurture
-Continuity/discontinuity
-Stability/change

Cohorts

Groups of people raised in the same time period.

how do twin studies and twin adoptive studies inform us about the role of genetics in development?

Researchers have been able to more accurately pinpoint the degree to which genetics (or nature) contributes to different human traits or characteristics

What are the 3 prenatal stages of prenatal development?

-Germinal stage
-Embryonic stage
-Fetal stage

germinal stage

-last 2 weeks
- period of rapid cell division and implantation into the uterus

embryonic stage

- 2-8 weeks
-formations of organs, neural tube, embryo is most vulnerable to environmental influences

Fetal stage

-8 weeks till birth
-rapid growth, brain organization (4m) organs begin to function

Teratogens

agents, such as (FASD) that can have negative impact on the development of an embryo or fetus

What does your textbook say about drinking while pregnant?

-FASD causes physical and cognitive abnormalities in children resulting from pregnant mother's alcohol intake.
-Researcher do not know how much alcohol use can cause FASD

What is the risk associated with smoking during pregnancy?

Higher rates of premature births, birth defects, and SIDS

major events involving brain development by birth

-Newborns weigh about 7 pounds, 20 inches
-Brain contains nearly all neurons it will have but is only 25% developed
-Sensory systems
-Newborn Reflexes, programmed for survival

major events involving physical/brain development during adolescence

-the brain selectively prunes neurons and connections
-puberty
-frontal lobes become more developed through the early 20s,

major events involving physical/brain development during adulthood

-Slow and steady decline
-Reproductive changes
-Changes in the brain
great deal of individual differences on rate

motor abilities present at birth and how they develop

hold their heads up, then sit with assistance, then sit unassisted, followed later by crawling, pulling up, cruising, and then walking.

What are reflexes?

involuntary responses

When are reflexes present?

Either at birth, or they appear at predictable stages in development.

what is the purpose of reflexes?

They allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment.

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Moro (startle) reflex

an infant will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

(infancy through adulthood) Children progress through 4 stages.

The Sensorimotor Stage (0 - age 2)

-learn through sensing and movement
-•learn they are separate from others
-Limited symbolic thought
-Object Permanence

The Sensorimotor Stage (2 - 7)

-•begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and images to represent objects
-Imaginative play
•Centrism
•Egocentric
•Irreversibility

Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11)

-logical and organized but still concrete thinking
-concept of conservation
-perform mental operations
-Difficulty with abstract concepts

Formal Operational Stage (12 - )

-think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
-Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning

Vygotsky's Theory

Cognitive dev. occurs as a result of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

phase of learning during which children are prepared to benefit from instruction

Scaffolding

Provides support for learning, fade & remove.

how does cognition change from adulthood into old age?

our mental functions become less nimble and flexible, and many aspects of our memory get a little worse

Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning(3 levels)

-Preconventional morality
-Conventional morality
-Postconventional morality

Preconventional morality

Morality is based on rewards & punishments. Is self centered

Conventional morality

Moral behavior conforms to the rules and values of society. Please others / obey laws.

postconventional morality

Morality defined by personal values. Mutual benefit and reciprocity are key.

Heinz Dilemma
(Kohlberg)

- asks a participant to explain why he believes it is better to steal a drug to save a person's life or to obey the law by not stealing the drug

What are criticisms of Kohlberg's theory?

-Reasoning is not doing
-Culturally / gender biased?
-Assumption that moral reasoning precedes our emotional reaction may not be accurate.

Haidt's "social intuitionist "account of morality

instant gut reaction, then reasoning to 'explain' the reaction.

What is attachment?

-the close emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual (PCG)

behaviorist view of attachment

Conditioning (CC, OC) Mom \= food / initially prominent

contact comfort view of attachment

innate desire for closeness

Harry Harlow's study on attachment (1958)

"Wire monkey versus cloth monkey"

How did Harlow's research with baby monkeys contribute to what we know about attachment?

infants feel an attachment toward their caregiver

Baumrind's 4 parenting styles

-Authoritarian
-Permissive
-Neglectful/Uninvolved
-Authoritative

What are the three attachment styles identified by Ainsworth?

-secure
-anxious
-avoidant

authoritarian parenting

-High behavioral standers, strict punishment and little communication

permissive parenting

-high communication
-little discipline, guidance, or control

neglectful/uninvolved parenting

-Indifferent toward their children
-Unaware of what is going on

authoritative parenting

parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children

authoritarian parenting outcome

Do okay in school, low self esteem, boys more
aggressive & girls more submissive