Comprehensive Guide to Child and Adolescent Development: Piaget, Vygotsky, Brain, and Social Theories

What did William James contribute to psychology?

He suggested that perception and cognition develop through experience, describing infants' perceptions as a 'chaotic flood of sensory experiences.'

Who was Jean Piaget?

A psychologist known for his theory of children's cognitive development, explaining how children build knowledge.

What are cognitive schemas?

Mental representations that help individuals think about possible actions and select one to achieve a desired outcome.

What are the three key principles of quantitative change in cognitive development?

1. Simple to complex, 2. More to less egocentric, 3. Concrete to abstract.

What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation?

Assimilation involves adding new experiences to existing schemas, while accommodation involves modifying old schemas.

What are the stages of Piaget's cognitive development?

1. Sensory-Motor (0-2), 2. Pre-Operational (2-7), 3. Concrete Operational (8-12), 4. Formal Operational (12+).

What characterizes the Sensory-Motor stage?

Children build on innate reflexes, repeat actions, and experiment with objects.

What is a key feature of the Pre-Operational stage?

Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and a lack of reversibility.

What cognitive abilities emerge in the Concrete Operational stage?

Understanding conservation, classification, and perspective-taking.

What defines the Formal Operational stage?

Abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, and systematic problem-solving.

Who was Vygotsky?

A psychologist known for his sociocultural theory, emphasizing the role of social interaction in cognitive development.

What are cultural tools according to Vygotsky?

Physical and symbolic artifacts that help societies develop, such as language, computers, and art.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The distance between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more competent peer or adult.

What is private speech in Vygotsky's theory?

Self-directed speech that children use to guide their own thinking and actions, initially spoken aloud and later internalized.

What is scaffolding?

The support given to children in the Zone of Proximal Development, which decreases as they become more competent.

What is guided participation?

The interaction between individuals during culturally valued activities, where guidance is shaped by social and cultural values.

What is synaptic density, and when does it peak?

The number of synaptic connections in the brain, which peaks during toddlerhood, especially in the frontal lobes.

What is the significance of synaptic pruning?

It is the process of reducing the number of synaptic connections, making the remaining connections more efficient.

What is the typical age range for walking without support?

About 11 months, with a wide range from 9 to 17 months.

What are holophrases?

Single words used by children to represent whole sentences, such as 'cup' meaning 'hand me my cup.'

What is the difference between overextensions and underextensions in language development?

Overextensions occur when a single word represents a variety of related objects, while underextensions apply a general word to a specific object.

What are signs of readiness for toilet training?

Staying dry for an hour or two, regular bowel movements, and expressing a desire to use the toilet.

What is the role of the frontal lobe in cognitive development?

It is responsible for distinctive human cognitive qualities such as reasoning, planning, and creativity.

What is representational thought?

The ability to form mental images or concepts of objects and events.

What is the significance of critical periods in development?

They are specific times during which certain skills or abilities must be developed, or they may not develop properly.

How does sleep duration change from infancy to toddlerhood?

Sleep declines from 16-18 hours a day in neonates to about 15 hours by the first birthday, and then to 12-13 hours by the second birthday.

What is the most common nutritional deficiency worldwide?

Deficiency in iodine, affecting ⅓ of the world population and inhibiting cognitive development.

What are the primary emotions identified in child development?

Anger, fear, and happiness.

What are secondary/sociomoral emotions?

Guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride.

What is the process of information encoding?

It is how humans process information from the environment through sensory receptors.

What are the types of encoding in information processing?

Auditory, visual, semantic, tactile, and kinesthetic encoding.

What influences the efficiency of information encoding?

Attention, cognitive load, repetition and rehearsal, emotional connection, and association with prior knowledge.

What is the difference between short-term memory and long-term memory?

Short-term memory retains information for 15-30 seconds, while long-term memory stores information for days, years, or a lifetime.

What are the types of long-term memory?

Explicit (conscious recall of facts and experiences) and implicit (unconscious recall of skills and habits).

What is the 'Strange Situation' assessment?

A laboratory assessment of attachment involving introductions, separations, and reunions between a child, mother, and unfamiliar person.

What are the four attachment types identified in child development?

Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganized-disoriented.

What characterizes a secure attachment?

The child uses the parent as a secure base, protests when separated, and is happy upon the parent's return.

What is executive function in child development?

An internal system that manages thoughts, emotions, and actions, guiding problem-solving and decision-making.

What are the characteristics of authoritative parenting?

High in demandingness and responsiveness, explaining rules and expectations while being loving and warm.

What are the outcomes associated with authoritarian parenting?

High demandingness but low responsiveness, leading to aggressive and unruly boys and anxious, unhappy girls.

What is the impact of media exposure on children?

Children in the US watch about 2 hours of TV a day, and violent TV correlates with increased aggression.

What is the concept of 'the internal working model'?

It refers to a child's expectations about their caregiver's availability and supportiveness during times of need.

What is the significance of neuroplasticity in memory?

It refers to the strengthening of synaptic connections through practice and learning.

What is the decay theory of memory failure?

Memories fade if not used over time.

What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?

Proactive interference occurs when old memories block new ones, while retroactive interference happens when new memories overwrite old ones.

What is the role of fathers and older siblings in traditional cultures?

Fathers often serve as providers and disciplinarians, while older siblings frequently take on primary caregiving roles.

What is 'filial piety'?

The expectation that children will respect, obey, and revere their parents throughout life.

At what age does stranger anxiety typically appear?

Around 6 months of age.

What percentage of children in the US have no siblings?

20%.

What is the recommended screen time for children under 18 months?

It is not recommended for children under 18 months to watch TV.

What country made it illegal to have more than one child for some time?

China

What is the average amount of TV watched by a child in the US per day?

3.5 hours

At what ages are children most vulnerable to TV violence?

3-6 years old

How is intelligence defined?

The capacity to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

What is the most commonly used test to measure IQ?

Wechsler Scales

What does neurodiversity recognize?

That variations in cognitive processing are normal.

What challenges are associated with Autism?

Difficulties in executive function, hyperconnectivity in some brain regions, and reduced connectivity in social/emotional areas.

What are the symptoms of ADHD?

Difficulties in attention, impulse control, and working memory.

What is the significance of an IQ score lower than 70?

It indicates an intellectual disability.

What physical growth occurs in children during middle childhood?

Increases of 2-3 inches in height and 5-6 pounds in weight per year.

What is the peak physical development stage for children?

Middle childhood.

What is the relationship between TV and obesity?

Increased TV watching correlates with higher rates of obesity.

What is the 20-20-20 rule?

A guideline to reduce eye strain: every 20 minutes, look at something 20 feet away for 20 seconds.

What is selective attention?

The ability to focus on specific information while ignoring distractions.

What is the Flynn effect?

The observed rise in IQ scores over time across populations.

What is the Experience Sampling Method (ESM)?

A research method that collects data on individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in real-time.

What is the Gender-Intensification Hypothesis?

The idea that gender differences in behavior and attitudes become more pronounced during adolescence.

What are the primary sex characteristics developed during puberty?

Changes directly related to reproduction, such as the development of ovaries and testes.

What is menarche?

The first menstrual period in females.

What are the risks for girls who experience early-onset puberty?

Increased risk of eating disorders, substance abuse, and delinquency.

What is adolescent egocentrism?

The belief that one is unique and that others are focused on them, leading to feelings of invulnerability.

What is the significance of the term 'storm and stress' in adolescence?

It refers to the emotional upheaval and conflict often associated with this developmental stage.

What is the most common form of child labor in the world?

Agricultural work.

What is the impact of social media on identity formation during adolescence?

It influences self-perception, peer relationships, and social comparison.

What is the role of dopamine in adolescent risk-taking?

Dopamine is linked to reward-seeking behavior, which can lead to increased risk-taking during adolescence.

What is the relationship between bullying and late adolescence?

Bullying tends to decrease during late adolescence.

What is emerging adulthood?

A developmental stage between adolescence and full adulthood characterized by exploration and self-discovery.

What are the key characteristics of emerging adulthood?

Identity exploration, instability, being self-focused, feeling in-between, and possibilities.

What is identity exploration?

An age when individuals explore various possibilities in love and work.

What does instability refer to in emerging adulthood?

Frequent changes in living situations and relationships.

What does being self-focused mean in the context of emerging adulthood?

Time spent between relying on parents and making young adult commitments.

What does feeling in-between signify for emerging adults?

The sense of no longer being an adolescent but not fully an adult.

What is the significance of possibilities in emerging adulthood?

Different futures remain possible, allowing for various life paths.

What is the peak performance in sports typically reached?

During emerging adulthood.

What is the relationship between emerging adults and their parents?

Relationships generally improve, with greater acceptance and approval.

What is binge drinking defined as?

Consuming five or more drinks in a row for men, four for women.

What is delayed sleep phase syndrome?

A pattern of sleeping longer on weekends than on school days, leading to poor performance.

What is social control?

Restraints on behavior imposed by social obligations and relationships.

What are the four identity statuses in James Marcia's model?

Diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.

What does diffusion mean in Marcia's identity status model?

Not having explored options or made commitments.

What is foreclosure in Marcia's identity status model?

Making a commitment without exploring alternatives.

What does moratorium mean in Marcia's identity status model?

Actively exploring options but not yet making commitments.

What is achievement in Marcia's identity status model?

Exploring various options and making conscious commitments.

What are the four responses to ethnicity in Phinney's model?

Assimilation, marginality, separation, and biculturalism.

What does assimilation mean in Phinney's model?

Leaving behind one's ethnic group to adopt the majority culture.

What is marginalization in Phinney's model?

Rejecting one's culture of origin while feeling rejected by the majority culture.

What does separation mean in Phinney's model?

Associating only with one's own ethnic group and rejecting the majority culture.

What is biculturalism in Phinney's model?

Developing a dual identity based on both the ethnic group and the majority culture.

What is the median age of marriage in the US?

28 years.

What percent of college students have driven intoxicated in the last year?

Half of American college students.