1.1 History of Medicine

What did prehistoric people believe caused illness?

They believed illness was caused by evil spirits or gods.

What role did herbs play in early healing practices?

Herbs were used for their medical reasons and to help with healing. They served as natural remedies.

What is the Latin root of the word herb, and what does it mean?

The Latin root of the word herb is “herba”, which means plant.

What does the term spiritual derive from, and what does it signify?

The term spiritual derives from the Latin word “Spiritus” which means breathing or soul. It signifies a religious belief.

What is a poultice, and how was it used in early medicine?

Poultices were mashed up herbs for wounds. It was used as early medicine to help heal and soothe a wound.

What pain-relieving substance is found in willow bark?

Willow bark contains salicin which is like early Aspirin.

Define trepanation and explain its purpose in ancient cultures?

Trepanation was creating a hole in the skull to treat head issues or release spirits.

What does the Greek root trypanon mean?

Trypanon means to bore (make a hole).

What archaeological evidence suggests prehistoric people survived trepanation?

Skulls that showed signs of healing.

Who was Otzi the Iceman, and what does he reveal about early medicine?

He was a human body with tattoos possibly linked to acupuncture and carried a medicine like penicillin.

What medicinal items did Otzi carry?

He carried medicinal fungus which was like a antibiotic or laxative.

How did religion influence Egyptian views on illness?

Egyptians thought illness linked to gods and spirits.

Who was Imhotep, and why is he significant in medical history?

He was known as the “god of medicine.” He used potions and religious remedies and had the medical knowledge of the egyptians.

What does it mean that Imhotep was deified?

He went from a normal man to being worshipped by the Egyptians as the god of medicine and healing.

What two major medical texts came from ancient Egypt?

Smith Papyrus and Ebers Papyrus

What type of information was found in the Smith Papyrus?

Practical treatments like stitching, bandages, and antiseptics.

What did the Ebers Papyrus contain?

Spells and remedies for various ailments. It contains about 700 remedies.

What is the origin of the word Papyrus?

Ancient writing

Break down the word antiseptic into prefix and root.

“anti-” means against, and “-septic” means disease.

How did mummification contribute to anatomical knowledge?

Mummification enhanced anatomical knowledge.

What are the four humors in Greek medicine?

Blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm.

What did Greek physicians believe caused illness?

They believed it was caused by imbalance in four humors.

What does the Latin root umor mean?

It means fluid.

Who was Hippocrates, and what is his significance?

Also known as “Father of Western medicine” was promoted observation and systematization.

What does acute mean, and what is its Latin root?

“Acuere” meaning sharp.

What does chronic mean, and what is its Greek root?

“Chronos” meaning long time.

What practices did Hippocrates advocate for patient care?

He advocates for good diet, rest, hygiene, symptoms.

How did Hippocrates medicine different from religious explanations?

He emphasized ethics. He shifted away from spiritual and magic and believed in a scientific approach to medicine.

Who was Galen, and what was his contribution to medicine?

Roman man and synthesized Hippocrates and Greek ideas. He had practical surgical experience, improved Roman health, and dissected animals for anatomical knowledge.

What types of patients did Galen treat that informed his knowledge?

He treated gladiators and did their surgeries.

How long did Galen’s ideas dominate medicine?

Influential for over 1,400 years.

What public health innovations did the Romans create?

Built aquaeductus (ancient sewer system), baths, and sanitation systems to prevent diseases.

Name three surgical tools used by Roman physicians.

Scalpels, hooks, and saws.

How did medical knowledge change during the Dark Ages?

Decline of Scientific Medicine. Returned to superstition and prayer.

What role did superstition play in medicine during this period?

During this period, people blamed illness on themselves and thought god was punishing them.

What caused medicine to regress after the fall of Rome?

Decline of scientific medicine

When did the Black Death occur, and how many people died?

1347-1351 and killed one-third of Europe.

What bacteria caused the Black Death?

Caused by Yersinia pestis via fleas on rats.

How was the plague spread?

By fleas that flew on rats with this disease on them.

What were the symptoms of the bubonic plague?

Fever, buboes, gangrene.

What does the term bubo mean, and where does it come from?

Greek Boubon - groin swelling. Comes from bubonic plague.

What treatments were used for plague victims in medieval Europe?

Bloodletting, charms, religious penance.

Why did many people blame themselves for getting sick?

They thought the illness was caused because God was punishing them.

What were alchemists attempting to discover?

The Philosophers Stone

How did alchemists contribute to the development of pharmacology?

They created chemical remedies.

In what way were alchemists both mystics and chemists?

They worked with both sides and mixed them. They used magic and science for healing.

What is Qi, and how does it relate to Chinese medicine?

Qi is vital energy or life force and flows through the body.

What are the principles of Yin and Yang?

Yin and Yang are opposites which shows that balance is key to health.

What is the Yellow Emperor’s Classic, and why is it significant?

It emphasized Yin and Yang and has traditional Chinese Medicine knowledge.

Break down the word acupuncture into its parts.

Acu: Latin - Acus means needle. Puncture means to prick or penetrate.

What are the three doshas in Indian Ayurvedic medicine?

Vata, Pitta, Kapha

Who was Sushruta, and what was his contribution to medicine?

He did detailed surgical practices and believed healing through balanced diets, herbs, and rituals.

How did Ayurveda treat illness differently than Western traditions?

Ayurveda focus on restoring balance and try to find the root cause of an illness while Western traditions just cure an illness.

What role did nature and spirit play in Native American healing?

They were very connected to their spiritual self.

Name three herbal remedies used by Native American healers.

Sage, tobacco, willow bark

How was Native American medicine communal?

It was globally used.

What is a shaman, and what role did they play in healing?

Shamans were intermediaries with spirits. They would chant, drum, and use herbal remedies.

List three common shamanic healing practices.

Drumming, chanting, herbal remedies.

What is one reason shamanism developed in many different regions?

People had the same morals/problems.

What kinds of materials were used in African traditional medicine?

Roots, bark, animal parts.

Why is botanical knowledge important for African healers?

It is important because they live around lots of plants and they need the knowledge to make plant based remedies.

What are the two types of healers in ancient Mesopotamian medicine?

Ashipus and Asu

What were the roles of the Ashipu and the Asu?

Ashipu does rituals and spells while Asu are practical healers.

What was Hammurabi’s Code, and how did it influence medicine?

Physicians held accountable for treatment outcomes and malpractice. It influenced medicine by putting a punishment for malpractice or if the outcome comes wrong.

Break down the term malpractice into prefix and root.

“mal-” means bad and “-practice” means to do or accomplish.

Why was legal accountability important in early Mesopotamian medicine?

So doctors couldn’t intentionally hurt their patients.

Who was Al Rhazi and what text did he write?

Persian physician who promoted cleanliness in healing wounds. He wrote Kitab al-Hawi, a major medical encyclopedia.

What does Kitab al-Hawa mean in English?

Comprehensive Book

What did Al Rhazi emphasize in clinical training?

Careful Observation, clinical experience, and experimentation.

What principle did Al Rhazi promote long before germ theory.

Cleanliness in healing wounds and treating infections.

Who was Iba Sina and what was his most famous book?

Persian physician who wrote The Canon of Medicine and introduced the concept of contagious diseases. He developed treatments for tuberculosis, meningitis, and diabetes.

What does the word Canon mean in the title The Canon of Medicine.

The word Canon means rule.

What idea did Iba Sina introduce about how diseases spread.

Proposed that disease spreads from one person to another. Can spread through water, soil, and air.

What is the root meaning of the word contagion.

“con-” means together, “-tangere” means to touch.

What did Iba Sina believe about the causes of disease?

Proposed that disease spreads from one person to another. Even through water, soil, and air.

What role did Greek and Roman texts play in Arab-Islamic medicine.

What are the four humors in ancient Greek medical theory?

Blood, Yellow bile, Black bile, Phlegm

What did physicians believe happened when the humors were imbalanced?

What treatments were used to restore balance in the humors?

Bloodletting, Purging, Diet or lifestyle changes.

What does the term phlegm mean in its Greek root?

Inflammation - swelling

What is the origin of the term melancholia?

Who are the two key historical figures associated with humorism?

What elements or emotions were linked with each humor?

What role did bloodletting play in humor-based medicine?

What belief system justified the use of purging as treatment?

What is the Latin origin of the word humor?

Where did major medical schools emerge during the Arab revival?

What was the significance of the Salerno Medical School?

What kind of treatments became more common with formal schooling?

What is the origin of the word hospital?

Hospes which means guest or host.

What does the Greek word cheirourgia mean?

How did formal education shift medicine away from apprenticeships?

What regions preserved and expanded classical medical texts?

Why was the development of disease-specific wards important?

Who was Andreas Vesalius and what did he publish?

What is the full title of Vesalius’s anatomical text?

De Humani Corporis Fabrica

What does De Humani Corporis Fabrica translate to?

On the Fabric of the Human Body

What was revolutionary about Vesalius’s use of human dissection?

Whose anatomical mistakes did Vesalius correct?

What is the Latin root for the word corpus?

Corpus means body.