CPM 2 - all lectures

hard security issues

risks that are a threat to a nation-state’s safety.

soft security issues

risks of destabilising economic prosperity and national welfare.

Copenhagen school

more holistic, linking individual, state, and international system. Wider range of threats, including economic, political, environmental, and societal threats.

human security - United Nations Development Programme 1994

addresses root causes of (in)security. additionally, identifies and reduces threats to human security through protection and empowerment.

United Nations Commission on Human Security (2003)

Protecting people in violent conflict. Supporting security of people on the move. Protecting and empowering people in post-conflict situations.

irregular migration

undocumented migration, “illegal” migration.

human security

human-centric approach to security conceptualised by the UN – protection and empowerment.

internally displaced person (IDP)

person fleeing (from conflict, etc.) within borders of one’s own country.

refugee

person fleeing (from conflict, etc.) beyond the border of one’s own country.

refoulement

forced return of refugee or asylum seeker to a place where there are very likely to be persecuted or otherwise be at serious risk of harm.

bias

subjective judgement that is unfair, illegitimate or unjustifiable.

prejudice

rigid and irrational generalisation about an entire category of people.

stereotyping

combined prejudices that form an exaggerated image attributed to all members of that group.

discrimination

differential behaviour and treatment of out-groups.

intergroup bias

systematic tendency to evaluate one’s own membership group (in-group) or its members more favourably than non-membership groups or its members (outgroup).

explicit bias

inconsistent responses: balance between desire to evaluate own group positively and wish to maintain self-image or fair-mindedness.

implicit bias

unintentional bias

out-group derogation

the other group (out-group) is regarded negatively and as potentially threatening to one’s own group (in-group).

social identity theory

people categorize themselves and others into groups, favor their own group (in-group), and compare it to out-groups to boost self-esteem.

optimal distinctiveness theory

Compromise between two opposing needs:

• Satisfaction with group identification

• Need for in-group differentiation

subjective uncertainty reduction theory

identification with in-groups with clear normative prescriptions for behaviour to help reduce uncertainty.

terror management theory

group identification based on cultural worldviews helps reduce anxiety caused by awareness of death.

social dominance theory

determines preference for intergroup hierarchies and ideologies in society that either promote or attenuate intergroup hierarchies.

intergroup ideologies

formal and informal rules, policies and traditions to deal with cultural diversity and issues of citizenship.

assimilation

implies unidirectional process pressuring minority groups to recategorize and conform to majority.

colour-blindness

implies that racial or ethnic membership should not matter, all people are the same.

multiculturalism

involves acknowledging group differences, appreciating diversity, and respecting minority group identities.

citizenship

entails a set of rights and duties linking citizens to the state.

social dominance orientation (SDO)

general attitudinal orientation toward intergroup relations, reflecting whether one generally prefers such relations to be equal or hierarchical.

legitimising myth

set of beliefs to provide justification of distribution of social values within the social system.

social influence

our own personal ideas, beliefs, attitudes and values are shaped by what others around us believe in or value.

intersubjective approach

rather than acting on their personal beliefs and values, people sometimes act on the beliefs and values they perceive to be widespread in their culture.

mental

cultural representations when repeatedly communicated and widespread.

pluralistic ignorance

incorrect perception of others’ beliefs.  

Passive representation

organisation employs individuals from societal groups (ethnic, gender, etc.) proportionate to their share of the population.

Active representation

employees will “press for the interests and desires of those whom he is presumed to represent”.

Procedural justice

focuses on the way police and other legal authorities interact with the public and how the characteristics of those interactions shape the public’s views of the police, their willingness to obey the law, cooperation with the police in fighting crime, and actual crime rates.

Voice (procedural justice - principles)

people need to have the chance to tell their side of the story and to feel that authority figures will listen and sincerely consider this before making a decision.

Neutrality (procedural justice - principles)

People need to see authority figures as principled decision-makers who apply rules consistently, transparently, and without personal bias.

Respect (procedural justice - principles)

People need to be treated respectfully by authority figures, believe their rights are considered equal to others, and feel that their issues will be taken seriously.

Trustworthy motives (procedural justice - principles)

People need to see authority figures as sincere and authentic, who listen, care, and strive to do what is right for everyone involved.

Met’s Gangs Matrix

launched in 2012 after the 2011 London Riots, was developed to track and assess the risk of violence posed by known gang members in London. It assigns individuals a risk score (red, amber, or green) and a victim score, influencing police actions such as intelligence-led stop-and-search and data-sharing with non-policing agencies.

Allocation of resources (implications of big data & policing)

police forces will need to consider how algorithmic bias may affect their decisions to police certain areas more heavily.

Legal claims (implications of big data & policing)

discrimination claims could be brought by individuals scored ‘negatively’ in comparison to others of different ages or genders.

Over-reliance on automation (implications of big data & policing)

there is a risk that police officers may depend too much on analytical tools, undermining their discretion and causing them to disregard other relevant factors.

Predictive policing

tech-based tool based on large data sets to help predict and prevent potential future crime.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

the simulation of human-like intelligence in machines, enabling them to perform tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Bias as technical term

deviance from standard.

Bias in sociological terms

presumptions or attitudes that lead to discrimination and harm (for certain groups or people).

Biased data

this happens when the data we use to train a machine learning system already contains bias, leading the system to make unfair or inaccurate decisions.

Bias by omission

this happens when important groups or information are left out of the data used to train the system, making it less accurate or fair for those groups.

Bias by proxy

this occurs when a system uses indirect measures instead of the real thing, and these indirect measures introduce bias.

Civil (components of citizenship)

“the rights necessary for individual freedom”

Political (components of citizenship)

“the right to participate in the exercise of political power”

Social (components of citizenship)

"the full range from the right to basic economic support to the right to fully participate in society's culture and live a decent life according to the standards of the community"

Cultural (components of citizenship)

“comprises the right to assert and cultivate one’s cultural heritage”

Mental element (convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, 1948)

the "intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such".

Physical element (convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, 1948)

includes the following five acts, enumerated exhaustively:

• Killing members of the group

• Causing serious harm to the group

• Inflicting life conditions leading to destruction

• Imposing measures to prevent births

• Forcibly transferring children to another group

Immigrant groups (types of minorities, Kymlicka 2012)

• Turkish Germans

• Mexican Americans

• Arab immigrants

Historic national minorities (types of minorities, Kymlicka 2012)

• Catalans in Spain

• Frisians in the Netherlands

• Welsh and Scottish in the UK

Indigenous peoples (types of minorities, Kymlicka 2012)

• Maori in New Zealand

• Inuit in Canada

• Ainu in Japan