Micro 106 exam 2

archaea (5)

* privative
* similar but unique form bacteria
* unique anatomy/phys
* unique genetics
* found living in extreme enviornents

how to bacteria differ from eukaryotes?

* DNA location and histones
* cell wall: composition → sturdy and peptidoglycans
* internal: non membrane bound organelles in bacteria

What are the two categories of Bacterial Appendages?

1. motility
2. attachment/channels

what are motility appendages?

* flagella
* axial filaments

what are appendages for attachment/channels?

* fimbriae
* pili
* nanotubes/wires

what is the nucleus

genetic information (chromosomes

what are ribosomes

proteins

* 2 pieces
* different composition/function

what the the endoplasmic reticulum?

smooth and rough

what is the mitochondia

powerhouse of the cell

turns glucose to ATP

what does the golgi do?

sorts proteins and delivers to final cell destination

what are cilia

they are on the surface of most cells

what is the flagella for?

propulsion

what are some characteristics of prokaryotes

* oldest cell type
* simple and small
* lack nucleus and organelles
* single-celled

what are eukaryotes

* evolved from prokaryotes
* larger and more complex
* contains nucleus
* contains organelles
* single or multi cellular

what is similar with prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

* have DNA
* have ribosomes
* have cytoplasm
* have plasma membrane

cell theory

* living things are made of cells
* cells are the basic unit of life
* all cells come from other cells

what makes something alive? (7)

* maintain homeostasis
* levels of organization
* reproduce
* grow and develop
* use energy
* respond to stimuli
* adapt to environment

what are characteristics of viruses?

* not considered living
* cannot reproduce on own (need host)
* not composed of cells
* cannot maintain homeostasis
* no growth

what are the different types of membrane transportation?

* simple diffusion (including osmosis)
* facilitated diffusion
* active transport

what is simple diffusion

* molecules pass between the phospholipids to enter or leave the cell
* high concentration to areas of low concentration

what is facilitated diffusion

the diffusion of solutes through transport proteins in the plasma membrane

what is active transport

the movement of __ions__ or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by __enzymes__ and requiring energy.

what is endocytosis

the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane, and bringing it into the cell

what is exocytosis

a process by which the contents of a cell __vacuole__ are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane

diplo

remain in pairs after dividing

strepto

remain in chains

tetrads

groups of 4

sarcinae

divide in 3 planes and remain in cubes

staphylo

divide in multiple planes, grape clusters

what is a fimbriae

small appendages that attach to surface

what is a pili?

long appendages but fimbrae function

* allows the cell to anchor
* primarily connect 2 bacterial cells together

when does Glycocalyx form?

when cells are in hostile enviornment

what is a glycocalyx

carbs and proteins

* not well organized: loose → slime layer
* well organized: tight → capsule

what does glycocalyx do?

allow bacteria to stick to the surface and form multi-species collectives → biofilm

what are circular bits of DNA?

plasmids

what do plasmids do?

* provide antibiotic resistance
* produce unique enzyme
* produce other proteins
* can be shared between cells to transfer this ability to other cells

how are endospores made

by some bacteria during extreme stress

what do endospores do?

pack important components into small packages for survival

* resistant to heat, chemicals, and radiation
* live in soil long term

what is the polydoglycan layer?

long chains of carbs with protein side chains linking them together

what is the cell wall structure

provides protection of cell membrane in unfavorable conditions

* point of attack for antibiotics and lysozyme

what are mycobacterium

atypical cell wall

* cell wall has different composition → stain can ID

what are mycoplasmas?

* naturally have no cell wall
* unique membrane resistant to lysis
* very small and vary in size

what does chromophore mean?

color bearing ions

what do basic dyes do

positive stains

* cell becomes color of cye

what do acidic dyes do?

negative

* stain surrounding of cell

what is advanced staining

* shows differences between 2 cells with similar appearances
* react based on chem comp of organism

what do structual stains do?

take advantage of specific structures in a cell

* can stain one part to make it visible
* spore stain
* capsule stain
* flagella stain

what are the two types of metabolism

1. catabolism: bread down, produces energy
2. anabolism: building up

glycolysis

1 glucose → 2 pyruvate

* happens with or without O2
* produces 2 ATP

anaerobic fermentatin

* necessary if no way to process sugar into CO2 and H2O
* no O2 present, pyruvate builds up

what are metabolic pathways?

* multi step pathways to convert to molecules

what is the fermentaion strategy?

incomplete oxidation of glucose or other carbs in anaerobic environment

yields minimal ATP

how does a heterotroph get the necessary Carbon?

through the breakdown of organic material

* can't make its own food supply, so they have to eat other things, like plants or other animals, to survive

how does a autotroph get the necessary Carbon?

uses inorganic Carbon as its source

* an organism that can produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.

how does a phototroph get the necessary energy?

Gather light from sun (using cholorphyll)

* an organism that can use visible light as a primary energy source for metabolism

how does a chemotroph get the necessary energy?

gather energy from molecular breakdown

* organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of reduced compounds

what is a ChemoHeterotroph?

* microbes that use organic chemical substances as sources of energy and organic compounds as the main source of carbon.
* like people

what is a PhotoAutotroph

a photosynthetic organism that utilizes energy from light to synthesize organic molecules.

* like plants

what are the 3 groupings based on temperature preference?

1. psychrophiles
2. mesophiles
3. thermophiles

what are psychrophiles

* cold- loving microbes
* 0\*c-15\*c

what are mesophiles?

* moderate temp loving microbes
* 15\*c-50\*c

what are thermophiles

* heat loving microbes
* 50\*c-80\*c

what type of organism thrives at near boiling temperature?

hyperthermophiles / extremthermophiles

what organism exists between psychrophiles + mesophiles \n

psychrotrophs

what does facultative anaerobe mean?

* can survive in the presence or absense of O2
* generate ATP through aerobic respiration when O2 , when no O2 derive energy from anaerobic respiration or fermentation process

what does an obligate anaerobe mean?

* organisms that only grown and survive in conditions without O2

what is the dangers of metabolizeing O2

* can produce dangerous byproduce
* can kill cells
* used to kill invaders

what is an obligate aerobe?

* require oxygen to grow
* have enzyme to neutralize dangerous molecules

what is a catalase

breaks down

what is a superoxide dismutase?

destroys

what is an aerobe?

* need O2 to survive

what is a microaerophile?

require O2 in small amounts

what is an aerotolerant

anaerobes that can survive in O2 but not thrive

what is a halophile?

live in high salt areas

what is a barophile

live in areas of high pressure

how do bacteria reporoduce?

binary fission

* asexual
* one cell splits copies of DNA then splits into 2

what is generation time

time it takes for population to double

what is the lag phase

* initial cell growth phase


* metabolic activity but not growth

what is the exponential growth phase

cells divide by binary fission and double

what is the stationary phase

when growth ceases but cells remain metabolically active

what is the death phase

bacteria lose the ability to divide and the number of dead cells exceeds that of live cells

what did darwin do?

proposed Theory of Evolution

what did Gregor Mendel do?

determines rule of inheritance

what did Oswald Avery and Erwin Chargaff do?

stated DNA = inheritance information

what did Barbara McClintock do?

shows that genes can sometimes move on a chromosome

what are chromosome

organized compacted DNA

* found in nucleus

what is the structure of DNA

* double strand helix
* deoxyribose
* base pairs
* thymine

what is the structure of RNA

* single stranded
* single nucleobases
* uracil
* ribose

what are structural genes

genetic unit of heredity that directs formation of a specific protein

what are regulatory genes

control gene expression

what is a genome?

collection of genes in a given organims

what is a phenome

the set of all trait expressed by the organims

what is a genotype?

genetic makeup of the organism

what are the three parts of nucleotides (DNA and RNA)

sugar

phosphate

base

what is the name for the reproduction of living cells

replication

what are the two steps to building a protein

transcription and translation

what does helicase do in DNA replication

unzips DNA helix

what does primase do in DNA replication

synthesizies an RNA primer

what does polymerase I do in DNA replication

removes the primer, closes gaps, and repairs mismatches

what does polymerase III do in DNA replication

adds based to the growing DNA chain, proofreads