Social Research Methods

Component 2 (EVERYTHING)

Definition of Primary Research

Researcher collects data themselves.

Definition of Secondary Research

Researcher uses data that has already been collected by other people.

Examples of Primary Research

Questionnaires, interviews, focus groups.

Examples of Secondary Research

Personal documents such as letters and diaries, official statistics or existing sociological research.

Practical Issues

Issues that have a physical impact on whether a researcher is able to carry out a research project.

List of Practical Issues (A CATS SIC) 7 in total

Access, Cost and Time, Skills of the Researcher, Social Profile of the Researcher, Issues of literacy, Choice of research topic.

Access

How the researcher can reach and communicate with the target population.

Target population

The group of people that the researcher is interested in studying.

Gatekeeper

A person who can control access to the target population. They can help a researcher to access 'hard to reach' groups.

Cost and Time

How much the research task will cost and how long it will have to be carried out for.

Social profile of the researcher

Characteristics of the person carrying out the research - E.g. Gender/age/class/ethnicity.

Skills of the researcher

The researchers specific skills that may be needed to carry out specific studies - E.g. Questionnaires require less skill than interviews.

Choice of research topic

The topic the researcher is interested in studying, usually based on current issues, or the researchers own interests.

Issues of literacy

Some participants may have difficulty understanding/answering questions the researcher is asking.

Ethical issues

the moral concerns related to the research like whether participants or the researcher are likely to be harmed. The British Sociological Association has strict guidelines on social research to determine if it is ethical or not that sociologists must comply with.

List of ethical issues (SAD WICH) 7 in total

Sensitivity, Anonymity, Deception, Right to Withdraw, Informed Consent, Confidentiality and Privacy, Protection from Harm

Deception

Participants are unaware or misled about the aims of the study.

Informed Consent

Participants should be given the choice to take part in the study at the beginning, after being told all relevant aspects of the research process.

Anonymity

The identity of participants should not be made known to anybody, including the researcher.

Confidentiality and privacy

Personal information about participants should not be released for the public to see/modified so that an individuals identity cannot be identified by the public.

Right to Withdraw

All participants need to be made aware that they have a right to withdraw their consent to take part in the study at any time (before, during or after the research has taken place).

Protection from harm

Researchers need to be aware of possible negative effects on a participants and their own mental/physical health.

Sensitivity

Researchers need to be aware that some topics they may wish to study could touch on difficult aspects of a participants life. The participant should not be put under pressure to answer any questions.

Positivists

Prefer quantitative research methods and quantitative data.

Interpretivists

Prefer qualitative research methods and qualitative data.

Quantitative data

Data based on numbers and statistics. Can be easily made into graphs to analyse for trends or patterns.

Qualitative data

Data based on words and opinions. Could be interpreted in different ways depending on the researcher's own views.

Quantitative research methods

Positivists prefer these methods. E.g. Questionnaires, Structured Interviews, Longitudinal Studies.

Qualitative research methods

Interpretivists prefer these methods. E.g. Unstructured Interviews, Semi-Structured Interviews, Focus Groups, Ethnography, Observations.

Realists

Like to use both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Want to use the most suitable methods for their research project that are 'fit for purpose'.

Methodological Pluralism/ Mixed Methods Research

Another way of saying using both quantitative research methods and qualitative research methods to get the benefits of positivism and interpretivism.

Triangulation

When realists compare, integrate and interpret the results from their different methods.

Theoretical Issues

Concerns relating to the theoretical perspective a sociologist has, for example, if they want to collect quantitative data or qualitative data. Positivists and interpretivists will value different theoretical issues.

List of Theoretical Issues (SRRGO VVGRS) 10 in total

Standardisation, Reliability, Representativeness, Generalisability, Objectivity, Validity, Verstehen, Going native (lowers validity), Researcher bias (lowers validity), Social desirability (lowers validity).

Standardised

Procedures used are kept the same. For example, asking all participants the exact same questions in a questionnaire or structured interview. (Important for positivists).

Reliable

Easy for another researcher to repeat the study exactly and check to see if they get the same results. This can only happen if research is standardised. (Important for positivists).

Validity

When the data is true to life. So the data reflects what life is actually like for the social group being studied. Easier to do this with rich, detailed data (Important for interpretivists).

Verstehen

Being able to see through the eyes of the social group being studied. Can only do this with rich, detailed data. (Important for interpretivists).

Representative Sample

When large samples are used and the characteristics of people in the sample are similar to people in the wider target population. (Important for positivists).

Generalisability

What the researcher finds out about in the data they collect from their sample can then be applied to the whole target population. (Important for positivists).

Objective

When the researcher's own views and opinions do not impact the data they collect. (Important for positivists).

Subjective/Researcher Bias

When the researcher's own views and opinions impact the data they collect. This can be a problem in interpretivist/ qualitative research methods.

Social Facts

Social laws that control our behaviour that can be observed by sociologists. E.g. areas with high poverty rates have higher crime rates (Important for positivists).

Questionnaires

A list of questions that participants read and answer themselves. It can be on paper or online.

Questionnaires mainly collect...

Quantitative data through the use of closed questions. Researcher may add one or two open questions to produce some qualitative data too.

Self-respondents

In questionnaires, participants are known as this as they answer the questions themselves.

Closed questions

There are only a limited amount of answers a participant can choose from for these questions. E.g. Multiple choice, yes or no.

Open questions

The participant can answer questions in as much detail as they want in these questions.

Questionnaire key studies

Census, CSEW (could also use Jackson, Venkatesh, Barker).

Three main types of interview

Structured; Semi-Structured; Unstructured.

Structured interview

When a researcher has a fixed set of closed questions that they ask and record participants' answers to. Often participants choose from multiple choice answers.

Interviews are usually conducted...

Face to face but could take place online or by telephone.

Structured interview key studies (x2)

CSEW, Born in Bradford.

Surveys

A large-scale quantitative study where data is usually collected by means of questionnaires and/or structured interviews.

Surveys key studies (x2)

Only the CSEW and Census due to their large scale.

Longitudinal studies

Collects data from the same sample of people on at least two occasions but usually more, over a significant period of time. Often use a combination of questionnaires and interviews. Usually quantitative data is collected but sometimes qualitative data is collected too.

Longitudinal studies key studies (x2)

Born in Bradford, Farrington (Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development)

Unstructured interview

Discussion between a researcher and participants with no set questions that flows like a conversation. The interviewer may bring a written list of topics they wish to cover to help them.

Unstructured interview key studies (x3)

Willis, Sharpe, Dobash and Dobash.

Semi-structured interviews

A researcher will have some pre-planned questions but can also discuss any other relevant issues as they arise. Probing questions are used by the interviewer.

Probing questions

Used to encourage interviewees to develop their answers or explore certain ideas. Used in semi-structured interviews and unstructured interviews. Interviewer must think of these on the spot.

Semi-structured interview key studies (x4)

Jackson, Farrington, Archer, 'That's What She Said' Report on Lad Culture.

Focus groups

The researcher acts as a facilitator who encourages a group to have a discussion on a particular topic. The researcher ensures the discussion remains on the relevant topic and takes notes of what is said. The group environment should feel more natural than a one to one interview.

Focus group key studies (x4)

Archer, 'That's What She Said' Report on Lad Culture, Born in Bradford, Willis.

Ethnography

An in-depth study of "the way of life" of a particular group. This usually takes place over several months or years and the researcher may even live amongst the group they are studying. Focus on the day-to-day life and activities that people take part in.

Value freedom

Researcher tries not to make judgements about what they see and remain objective. However, this is very difficult to do in practice, particularly in methods where the researcher is actively involved like an ethnography

Going native

This can be a real problem in ethnographies. It means becoming too sympathetic with the group you are studying. For example, ignoring or understating negative aspects of their behaviour or attitudes.

Ethnography key studies (x5)

Willis, Venkatesh, Barker, Humphreys, MacIntyre.

Covert observations

When a group of participants are not aware that they are being observed.

Overt observations

When a group of participants knows they are being observed and the purpose of the observation.

Hawthorne Effect

When participants change their behaviour because they are aware they are being studied. This happens in overt observations (and ethnographies).

Participant observations

When the researcher is takes part in the activities of the group they are are observing. They may not be involved in all activities but are often involved in some way. All the observation studies we have looked at are participant observation.

Non-participant observations

When the researcher studies a group but only observes them. They are not involved in the group's activities. For example, when an OFSTED inspector observes a lesson.

Covert Observation key studies (x2)

Humphries, MacIntyre.

Overt Observation key studies (x3)

Willis, Venkatesh, Barker.

Sample

A small proportion of the target population that will be studied.

Sample frame

A list of everyone in the target population.

Definition of Representative Sampling Methods

Aim to select a sample that accurately represents the social group that is being studied. Enables researchers to take large groups and make generalisations from the sample to the target population. Favoured by positivists.

Definition of Non-Representative Sampling Methods

Aim to select a sample that is most likely to give the researcher the information they are looking for. Enables researchers to select a small sample of people who can provide detailed information on the research topic, leading to more in-depth, valid data. Favoured by interpretivists.

Examples of Representative Sampling Methods

Simple random sampling, Stratified sampling, Systematic sampling, Quota sampling.

Examples of Non-Representative Sampling Methods

Snowball sampling, Volunteer sampling, Purposive sampling, Opportunity sampling.

Simple Random Sampling

Each member of the target population has an equal chance of being picked. This is like taking names out of a hat but is usually done using a computer program

Stratified Sampling

The population is divided into known criteria or strata. People are then selected randomly from these strata.

Systematic Sampling

Also known as systematic random sampling. This is a systematic approach to selecting participants, e.g. every 10th name on a list is chosen or every 5th house on a street, etc.

Quota Sampling

Researchers select a specific quota of individuals that they wish to study. A researcher will calculate how many people from each group are needed. They will then select individuals and then approach these people who match the criteria until the 'quota' is filled.

Snowball Sampling

The researcher will access one member of the population/social group that they wish to study and ask them to refer them onto another possible contact and so on. This person is called a gatekeeper.

Volunteer Sampling

People are invited to put themselves forward for the research, usually via an advert. Often used when no sampling frame exists

Purposive Sampling

The researcher decides what needs to be known and sets out to find people who can (and are willing) to provide the information due to their knowledge or experience. The deliberate choice of a participant due to the qualities the participant possesses.

Opportunity Sampling

The researcher looks to find members of the target population that meet certain practical criteria, such as easy accessibility or the willingness to participate. Often used by students who lack the time and resources that professional researchers may have.

Sampling key studies

Humphries (purposive); Venkatesh (snowball); CSEW (random); Born in Bradford (quota); Willis (purposive); Archer (stratified).

3 main types of secondary data

Documents, Official statistics, Other sociological research.

Secondary methods key studies

Documents - Hey, MacIntyre

Official Statistics - ONS, CSEW

Other sociological research - Cohen, Thornton, Wilkinson and Pickett

Documents

Any items that relate to some aspect of the social world. It may be in the form of text, sound or image. For example: Personal documents (diaries, letters, electronic data such as audio and video recordings, family trees), Newspaper reports, Novels and other works of fiction.

Official Statistics

Data collected by government departments and agencies

Other Sociological Research

Research that sociologists have carried out before

7 stages of research design

Introduction, Operationalising the concept, Justification of the Method, Sampling, Access, Objectivity, Ethics.

Social desirability

When a participant gives an answer that isn't true that they think is a more socially acceptable response compared to what they really think.

Trust and Rapport

When the researcher is able to build a positive relationship with the participant in their study. This can lead to more valid data as they may answer more honestly and act more naturally. It is related to sensitivity.