educational psych 2

learning

long term change in mental representations or associations resulting from experiences

cognition

mental phenomena that underlie human behavior

cognitive psychology

a branch of psychology dedicated to understand the mental processes related to perception attention thinking language decision making/ problem solving memory etc

cognitive processes influence what is learned

how people intercept and remember what they see, hear, and study have a big effect on what they learn and remember

peoples contrive process can sometimes be inferred from their behaviors

we can make inferences of peoples cognitive processes by how they behave

people are selective about what they mentally process and learn

because we are constantly bombarded with information we must chooses what to pay attention to

learners actively construct interpretations of phenomena and events in their environment

learners try to make sense out and connect seemingly separate pieces of information about the world

maturational changes in the brain enable increasingly sophisticated cognitive process with age

age and developmental stage are important factors in learning

teachers and parents can all support children’s healthy brain development

play and early interaction can improve and facilitate life long learning behaviors and overall well being

memory

learners ability to mentally save previously learned knowledge or skills

includes a processing system responsible for task such as encoding information or retrieval information

storage system

information processing theory

relied on many computer analogies / metaphors

more contemporary research suggest that these analogies are too simple

sensory register

stores unencodeded sensory input

larger capacity very short durations (1-2 seconds max )

holds information received through your senses

held in og form very large capacity but last for less than a second

to keep this information students ,use direct their attention to it and must direct their attention to it and move it to working memory

short term/ working memory

store's and works on attend input

multiple specialized components

limited capacity short duration (1-2 minutes, max)

can keep information active with maintenance rehearsal

typical item load

long term memory

stores processed information knowledge beliefs episodic memories procedural skills

unlimited capacity long duration

attention

directs the appropriate sensory receptors and the mind toward whatever needs to be learned and remembered

limited capacity

young children easily distracted

older children better able to focus attention

teachers must actively facilitate environment with limited distractions

central executive controls brains executive functions

focuses attention

oversees flow of information

selects and controls complex voluntary behaviors

inhibits counterproductive thoughts actions

general knowledge and skills

encoding solidifies new information

retrieval brings information into the working memory (conscious thought)

new information is often connected to relevant information already in long term memory

important roles for

hippocampus

prefrontal cortex

neurons and astrocytes (cells)

enhancing students cognitive functioning

recommendations that have a solid foundation in neuropsychological research

provide regular intellectual stimulation

remember that the brain also needs time for rest and reflection encourage physical exercise

encourager physical exercise

encourage and enable students to get enough sleep

forms of knowledge in long term memory

declarative

how things are were or will be semantic (definitions)

episodic (what happened on you first day of school)

procedural

how or when to do things

implicit knowledge

Extruding a bike driving a car

become more automatic

forms of knowledge in long term memory

semantic - abstract meaning or understanding

verbal - actual words

imagery - stored as perceptual images

emotional - strong association with memories

rote learning

memorization without meaning

often involves vet rehearsal

occasionally useful

meaningful learning

elaboration

origination

visual imagery

(typically more useful)

how to learn procedural knowledge

some procedures include mental components

ex: writing a persuasive essay

complex procedures often learned as declarative knowledge first ex “how to do things”

this knowledge guides behavior

automaticity comes later learning procedures requires practice

how can we help students learn new procedures

help students understand the logic behind procedures '

when skills are especially complex break them into simpler task that students can practice one at a time

provide mnemonics that can help students remember steps

provide opportunities to practice

provide feedback to help them improve

how information is organized in our memory (definitions)

concepts

mental groupings of objects or events that have something in common

schemas

concepts organized into general understanding

scripts

schemas with a predictable sequence of events related to a particular activity

how information is organized in our memory (application)

concept

you can define the word horse

schema

you understand multiple things about what a horse eats how it moves what it looks like you know when something is not a horse

script

you can recognize specific actions invalided in horse - back riding

“the jockey yanked the reins to slow them down as they approached the end of the track”

how to teach concepts optimal for organization and storage

give a definition and highlight the characteristics present a best example (prototype)

present a best example in diverse contexts

presents non examples especially her misses asks studnet’s to identify or generate examples and non examples especially near misses

ask students to identify or generate examples and non examples

show students how concepts are related

variations in cognitive processes can vary by

age

gender

culture

individual processing speed

individual background knowledge

students with special needs

depending upon ability some may have trouble attending to and processing information effectively

diversity in cognitive processing abilities

working memory capacity

speed of processing

ability to retain information

some may have limited knowledge base

metacognition

knowledge and beliefs about cognitive processes controlling thinking and being introspective, engaging in behaviors that facilitate thinking and learning

thinking about thinking

metacognitive awareness

knowledge about thinking and knowing

students with metacognitive awareness are likely to:

use effective learning strategies

have high achievement

developmental trends in metacognition (k-2)

overestimate knowledge

think learning is passive

devote equal time to easy and challenging task

believe that absolute truth about a given topic is ‘out there’

developmental trends in metacognition (6-8)

tend to believe that knowledge is a collection of facts

begin to see knowledge as subjective awareness of multiple perspectives

do not tend to use effective learning/ study strategies

developmental trends in metacognition (9-12)

learning takes time and practice certain strategies are appropriate/ effective in given circumstances

ideas should be evaluated and compared to evidence

intentional approaches to learning and remembering

overt strategies - specific behaviors observable by the teacher

creating calendars / schedules for learning and work

asking questions when confused

taking notes

creating summaries

covert strategies

mental techniques that are not easily observable

identifying important information

regularly monitoring learning

self explanation

self questioning

influence students to use overt and covert strategies

the nature of task

students cognitive load at the time how stressed they are feeling

recognition that current strategies are ineffective and willing to try new ones

epistemic beliefs - personal beliefs about the nature and knowledge of learning

culture influent students epistemic beliefs

many cultures vary in

how learning is defined

the purpose of learning in everyday life

role of effort

learning strategies

students with disabilities will likely need

explicit instructions in specific hearing strategies

scaffolding as they practice new strategies

metacognitive strategies for teachers

monitor students progress toward achieve key goals

help students adjust goals and search strategies

encourage students to compare and synthesize information obtained from multiple sources

have students explain their promblem solving approach

self monitoring questions

identify and check for errors

knowledge and transfer

using/ applying content after learning it , particularly in new contexts

positives transfer - something learned before helps to learn something new

negative transfer- something learned before makes it harder to learn something new

general transfer - earlier affects learning and performance in somewhat dissimilar situation

specific transfer - earlier learning affects learning and perforce in very similar situation

knowledge transfer is affected by

meaningfulness of original learning

similarity to original learning

relevance of material to real-world situations

opportunities to practice

cultural environment and expectations to use the information

problem solving affected by

students need considerable depth of knowledge and understanding to solve problems or be creative in domain

convergent and divergent thinking tax working memory

cognitive load is often high during these kids of tasks

students must be able to mentally represent the relevant information in order to process it

mental set: when students encode in a manner that limits possible solutions

problem solving strategies

algorithm

specific sequence of steps that guarantees a correct solution

ex mathematical formulas

ex assembly instructions

heuristic

general strategy that facilitates problem solving

example identify subgoals

brainstorms draw an analogy

teaching algorithms

describe and demonstrate specific procedures and situations

provide worked out examples and ask students to explain

help students understand why particular algorithms ARE RELEVANT and effective

look closely at and explain incorrect answers

problem solving

applying what one knows to solve unanswered question or challenging situation

ill defined problems

desired goal unclear

information needed to solve problem is missing

several possible solutions exist

several possible solutions

creativity

developing novel solutions

contextual theory

theoretical perspective on how ones physical social and or cultural surroundings influence and support their learning development and behavior influenced by vygotsky and bronfenbrenner because all vary considerably but most hold next 5 assumptions

learners often think and perform more efficelty when they can offload some of cognitive load

ex using a calculator

interactions with more advanced individuals

interactions with peers

research indicates that students learn effectively from peers when peers share they get

opportunities to clarify/ organize their thoughts

to elaborate on what was learned

exposure to others perspectives

to spot / reflect on inconsistencies in thinking

effective thinking /studying strategies modeled

practices in learning reasoning argumentation and social skills

specific instructional practice in which

all students actively participate

goal is to acquire body of knowledge

all students contribute

many resources are collected/ consulted

discussion/collaboration are common

diversity in students is expected and respected

students and teacher coordinate efforts

teacher provides some guidance

students contributes to direction

critique of work is common

culture

behavior and beliefs systems that a longstanding social group shares and passes along to other generations

students organize their knowledge of the world by schemas and scripts

culture influences how this knowledge gets organized

schema

organized set of facts about a specific topic

script

type of schema predictable sequence of actions related to a common activity

ela/ math / Science and social studies

interdisciplinary instruction

skilled reading - scarborough’s rope

sound and letter recognition

phonological awareness

recognizing sounds

word decoding skills

automatic word recognition

meaning contraction

reading comp

students have different early experiences

not everyone starts at the same

native language may affect literacy skills

science and math may be socialized as male domains

females and many non-western cultures are underrepresented in history texts

chronic difficulties with literacy can affect self esteem and motivation

help students find you

behaviorism

a theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of a stimulus response relationship also know as stimulus response (S-R) psychology

s = environmental stimulus

a change in the environment

R = learners response

what occurs because of the stimulus

peoples behaviors are largely the result of their exepreinecs with stimuli in their immediate environments

conItiong synonymous with learning

specific enviromental events lead to specific

learning involves forming associations among stmuli and responses

traditional perspectives not concerned with unobservable processes learingin is most likely to take place when stimuli and responses occur close together in time

classical conditioning

a new involuntary response is acquired as the result of two stimuli being presented close together in time pavlova classical condition ex

unconditioned stimulus proceed the response without any prior raining . in this case food

pavlov’s unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned response

automatic behavior in the presence of the unconditioned stimulus without nyprior training

in this case salivation

neutral stimuli

has no effect on the response in question in this case bell

conditioned stimulus

gains the power to illicit the response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus bell pairs with meat results in salivation at sound of bell

common phenomena in classical conditioning

extinction

conditioned response gradually disappears

fading over non-reinforcerd conditioned response over time

example from Palov dog no longer fed when they hear the bell so over time they will not salivate to the sound of the bell

classical conditioning phenomena in the classroom

generalization in school

when a student is required to perform a skill under different conditions / id different classes

critical thinking

metacognition

building and prating study skills across subjects

extinction in school

when reinforcement that was provided in response to a problem behavior (often unintentionally ) is discontinued to decrease or eliminate occurrences of these types of negative behaviors

operant conditioning

aka instrumental condition not all behaviors can be learned through classical conditioning

behaviors increaser or decrease as a result of consequences of those behaviors

behavior repeated = consequence was a reinforcement

punishment measurable decrease in behavior

first tested by b.f skinner with mice

reinforcer

measurable increase in behavior

increase the frequency of behavior

punishers

decrease its frequency

positive punisher add aversive stimulus to decrease behavior

negative punisher remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior

reinforcing stimuli may be extrinsic

concrete (example stickers )

social ( praise )

activity

token

reinforcing stimuli may be intrinsic

example feeling of pleasure or satisfaction

negative reinforcement

aversive stimulus is removed after a behavior and behavior is repeated as a result

stated differently removing something students consider undesirable to reinforce the target behavior

teachers should rarely use negative reinforcement

non effective punishments

physical

psychological

extra classwork

out of school suspension

effective punishment

verbal reprimands (scolding)

response cost

logical consequence

positive practice over correction

in school suspension

classical conditioning

involuntary response

timing learning is a result of a stimulus that comes before a response

reinforcements

naturally occurring phenomenon we just use is systematically to our advantage

primary

biological reinforcing stimuli

reenforcing value is natural

meets a need we have

food shelter water human connection etc

secondary

becomes reinforcing over time through association with other reinforcers (TYPICALLY CAN BE EXCANGED FOR A PRIMARY REINFORCER)

reinforcing value is conditioned

money grades tokens

IFEEDAV

describes qualities of effective reinforcement

immediately

frequently

eye contact

enthusiasm

describe the behavior

anticipation

variety

PBIS

a system of clear expectations for students

promotes teachers responsibility for dealing with students behavior

social congtivie theory

a theoretical perspective that focuses on how people learn by

observing others

developing a sense of self confidence over their behaviors

take control over their own behavior

includes perspective from the work Albert bandura

SLT

is a major outgrowth of the behavioral learning theory tradition \based on recognition of the importance of observation learning and self-regulated learning

two things that behaviorist perspectives does not consider

based recognition of the importance of observational learning and self-regulated learning

modeling

seems to have neurological basis

eg mirror neurons

specific neurons equipped for imitation

become active when learner observers a behavior or engages in that behavior themselves

social learning theory

attention - retention - motor reproduction- motivation

self regulation

refers to the way n which we monitor and evaluate our cognitive processes and behaviors

also includes consequence we impose on ourselves for success and failures

as individuals become more self related the environment has less of an effect over their behavior

self efficacy

the second hallmark of social cognitive theory develop sense of self - confidence over behaviors

attention phase

paying attention to a model

in general students pay attention to role models who are attractive successful interesting and popular

retention phase

once teachers have students attention it is time to model the behaviors they want students to imitate

give students. a chance to practice or rehearse

reproduction

students try to match their behavior to the models in the classroom the assessments of students learning takes place during this phase

motivational phase

students will imitate a model because they believe that doing so will increase their own chances to be reinforced

people can learn by observing others

learners acquire new responses simply by following models

learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to behavioral change

in contrast to behaviorsts