Infant and Child dev exam 2

Piaget order of stages

1. Sensorimotor (6 substages) birth-2 yrs

2. Preoperational- 2-7 yrs

3. Concrete Operational- 7-12 yrs

4. Formal Operational- 12+

Piaget development view

Sees it as ⁃     discontinuous- large jumps during certain times of universal development, but does not specify how children move through these stages.

Modern Neo Piagetian perspectives have filled this gap

Role of child Piaget

Child is an active participant- “little scientist”, constructing understanding through environmental interaction

Schemas

•     Unit of knowledge, the brain is filled with all kinds of schemas

•     Child constructs representations (schemas) through trial-and-error experience, construct knowledge based on these experiences.

Discovery learning (trial and error play)

Equilibration

How to process new experiences, make the world make sense with how your mind makes sense of things.

Thrown into a stage of disequilibrium when there is a mismatch between experience and what the mind has as previous experience, have to make a match

Adaptation (construction)

Adjusting/ adding mental schemas to fit new information for learning and development

Assimilation

using existing schemas to make sense of the world

Accomodation

building new schemas or modifying schemas to make sense of the world

Assimilation ex

A child who has a "dog" schema (four legs, fur, tail) might call a cow a "dog" because they are forcing the new animal into their existing mental category.

Adaptation ex

A child who believes all furry, four-legged animals are dogs (existing schema) must create a new schema for "cat" or "horse" upon realizing these animals are different

Ignore

if they can’t figure it out, cannot make sense of everything.

Can’t find the right schemas to make sense of it

Sensorimotor representation

Sensory, motor behaviors only

Sensorimotor limitations

“Here and now”

Ex- no representation of object permanence. Putting a ball behind your head, the baby thinks it is gone completely, but is surprised when you bring it back

I (birth- 1mo)- 6 substages sensorimotor

reflexes- practicing moving bodies around, starting to gain intentional control over bodies.

II (1-4mo)- 6 substages sensorimotor

primary circular reactions- simple motor habits, independent control of their body

III (4-8mo) - 6 substages sensorimotor

secondary circular reactions: repetition of basic cause and effect behaviors, child fails object permanence test:

does not understand that something still exists when out of sight.

IV (8-12mo)- 6 substages sensorimotor

coordination of secondary circular reactions- planful behaviors, stacking cause and effect schemas

V (12-18 mo)- 6 substages sensorimotor

tertiary circular reactions- Exploration of new planful behaviors. Ex- using stick to get toy that is out of reach. New gross motor skills such as walking and climbing.

VI (18-24mo)- 6 substages sensorimotor

mental combinations- Early representation- language, deferred imitation,

symbolic play: Role-playing, using objects to represent things, ex- banana as a phone

Preoperational achievements

Representation:

-Memory, language, pretend play (eg sociodramatic play)

-Remember the past, plan for the future, using language, concepts of ideas in play, like being a doctor taking temperature and measuring heartbeat

-Limited and one-dimensional

Preoperational centration

 oo difficult to think of multiple perspectives on a situation. Focus on a subsample of this situation.

Preoperational transductive reasoning

Think that things that happen together go together by necessity.

Transductive reasoning ex

putting together rain and cloudiness, adults understand the logic behind it, but the preoperational child believes that they happen together so they must go together, can lead to incorrect assumptions.

Assuming that eating waffles can lead to the trash truck coming by, because that is what they were eating when it did come by prior.

Preoperational Egocentrism

Thinking that everyone thinks in the way that they think.

Preoperational irreversibility

Inability to understand that the steps of a sequence can be reversed to return

Preoperational irreversibility ex

More juice in a tall thin glass compared to a short wide glass even though they watched it be poured from one to the other.

Concrete operational acheivements

Logical representation

Concrete operational conservation (decentration)

Understanding an object’s mass, volume, or number are constant regardless of shifts in appearance

Inductive reasoning

concrete experiences, helps with building schemas, specific to general

Deductive reasoning

Maturity of logical thinking, general to specific

Concrete Operational Reasoning

Deductive, some inductive- Still referring to specific instances to form very general conclusions, struggle with abstract thinking that goes against what they have experienced.

Ex- every bird I see chirps, so all birds must chirp the same way.

Concrete operational reversibility

Understanding that steps can be reversed to return object to its original state

Concrete operational limitations

Reasoning tied to concrete (physical) representation

Poor scientific reasoning- non-systematic.

Hypotheticals break down their existing reasoning

Role of working memory shaping stages

•   Workspace for current information:

-Always limited, working memory has a maximum capacity throughout the entire lifespan. Must remove something to fit something new. Substantially smaller space in young children, improves with age.

•    Infants have a 1 space capacity, rises to 2 during preschool and raises some more through elementary school.

Limitations of Piaget’s theory

representation and reasoning

•     Underestimates a child’s ability to remember/memory- sensorimotor children can remember things, it just looks different

•     Discontinuity within stages- children show a mix of stages in certain tasks they have more experience with, compared to tasks they are beginners at. Giant step shifts between stages does not generally happen. Does not define how a child moves into a new stage

Lack of universality- based his theory off of his own two kids and assumed it applied to everyone. Fits well with industrialized

Implicit long-term memory

Automatic, doesn’t require consciousness, functional at birth, mature by age 2.

Repeated everyday skills

Implicit learning

typically requires multiple learning events

Implicit retention

Not easily forgotten or misremembered

Implicit inclusions

Habituation, conditioning, motor skills

Implicit memory brain

Relies on subcortical structures, cerebellum. Early development (prenatal)

adult-like by preschool, little decline in old age (but some in 80+)

Explicit long-term memory

Effortful/intentional, does require consciousness.

Slow developing- reaches maturity at 12 or above. More complex information.

Explicit learning

Often occurs with a one-time learning event.

Explicit retention

Easily forgotten or misremembered

Explicit inclusions

Semantic memory, episodic memory, etc.

Explicit memory brain

Relies on PFC (prefrontal cortex) (learning), and hippocampus and cerebral cortex (storage)

Emerges in infancy, adult-like storage by school-age years, peak learning in early adulthood, and decline begins in older adulthood (60+).

Hippocampus is critical in storing/boxing up information, because it is not just input and output

Active thinking- WM

-conscious process using resources

-Workspace: working memory, used to house current info, limited in capacity, duration, and speed.

-Tools: executive function, effortful- used in input and output processes

Executive function

tools/cognitive controls: allows for: attention and processing-speed

Inhibition

rakes of cognition. Helps stop thinking when its going out of control.

Helps to stop inappropriate behaviors or distractions/unwanted thoughts

ADHD and inhibition

⁃     People with ADHD struggle the most, not necessarily with general focusing.

•   Planning

•   Cognitive flexibility

⁃     Get better due to maturation and practice

⁃     Cognitive controls also help with regulating behavior and emotions- hot and cold EF - Hot is intensely felt emotions

How to measure memory in children

•   Compare baseline vs. limitation

•   Child’s performance of:

⁃     Steps (WHAT)

⁃     Pairs of steps (WHEN)

•   Emerges around 6-9 months of age

Infantile/ childhood amnesia

Forgetting is much higher in infants and children compared to older children and adults

Deferred imitation paradigm

•   tests recall of events

⁃     Showing through their behaviors if they remember instead of through words

An event with ordered steps is modeled for an infant, in which they must imitate the sequence of steps after a delay and score their accuracy to test event recall.

Procedural learning (implicit types of conditioning)

 Unconscious acquisition of skills and habits, become automatic through repetition

Priming (implicit types of conditioning)

Exposure to initial stimulus unconsciously influences response to additional related stimulus, speeds up processing.

Operant (implicit types of conditioning)

Reward based behaviors

classical (implicit types of conditioning)

fear/ emotional responses

learning

Unconsciously acquiring skills and habits through repetition

maintenance

retention of skills and habits without intentional thought or recent practice

learning ex

Encoding info, practicing how to ride a bike, falling

maintenance ex

being able to ride a bike wo doing it in yrs, sustained behavior change through social support/ habit formation

Sociocultural theory

Cognitive development is driven by social and cultural interactions, not fixed into individual stages

Collaborative conversation drives development

Scaffolding

Collaboration between expert and novice to aid in learning

DIP vs DAP

Developmentally inappropriate vs developmentally appropriate

Fits with vygotskian language- lots of different ways to set up a classroom.

Best style of learning is attuned to each individual

DIP vs DAP ex

developmentally appropriate for college students is a lecture with rigid structure

while more interactive learning is better for young children.

Scaffolding important for

collaborative learning•   back and forth with involvement supports getting more out of a learning experience, active engagement

Ex- learning information, completing an assignment, getting detailed feedback in response

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

•   What the learner can understand with proper guidance

⁃     How all of human development has advanced throughout generations'

⁃     Getting the child to do what was previously inaccessible on their own, to be in their zone with collaborative help.

Always changing

ZPD ex

50 piece puzzle too difficult for a child to do on their own- help with tools such as a song, game, suggestions, etc. gives them structure (scaffolding) to help them complete it.

Autobiographical memory

A piece of explicit memory- big differences in how younger children remember

not very explainable with the brain

High Elaboration

good collaboration: child is able to explain experiences with cues and answer questions accurately.

Open-ended questions- allows for more participation, parent is affirming and encouraging child’s participation.

Low elaboration

poor collaboration: Child is unable to confidently explain experiences with cues, unsure.

Closed questions

Elaboration

More coherence with children who are high in elaboration, the age of earliest memory tends to be younger as well.

Genetic law of cultural development (vygotsky)

•   2-planes: social -> psychological

•   Learning cannot just exist in that moment, has to get into the child

•   Happens through private speech and inner speech

Private speech (genetic law of cultural development)

self-talk out loud, reminding yourself of something-

still done as adults but is generally kept as inner speech

Inner speech (genetic law of cultural development)

Self-talk in your head, more common in adults and older children.

Better representing learning to hold it within yourself

Core knowledge theory

•   Argues that we are born with some units of knowledge, and show up in behavior when we mature

•   Innate knowledge is present birth, or emerges with brain maturation

Domain specific knowledge

particular pieces of knowledge, not for all

structured around principles of objects, agents, and number—that allow them to process specific information from birth

All or none knowledge

is either there or not there- no other theories which can explain where this information comes from- happens in the same age for all infants, universal, no explainable with development.

Ex- basic number knowledge

Core knowledge about numbers

•   Addition and subtraction

•   Baby (10mo.) is surprised during experiment where 2 toys are shown at different times entering a covered screen, not equal to 2, as when the screen is revealed only one toy is shown (not adding up correctly)- leading to them looking longer at the incorrect answer.

•   Baby is not surprised when 2 toys are shown to equal 2

•   Only works when passing the object permanence test, usually acquired by 8-10 months.

Real boundaries to how far this impressive behavior goes- very small sets of numbers are present

Subtilizing range for numbers core knowledge

<4 items- representation of precise number breaks down at 4 items. Understanding of what numbers mean

Violation of expectation paradigm

Starts with a typical habituation design

Ex- dropping charm over and over again, and then introduces two new trials where something new happens in two different ways. The one that violates their expectation the most will draw their attention.

One: one correspondence

One object only counts for one physical object, each thing being counted gets only one number

Stabler order

Staying in the same order while counting, fluidly going 1-5

Abstraction

Numbers aren’t only applied to one set of things, and abstract concept that can apply to anything.

Child may accidentally form schemas too rigidly and think that the concept of counting is only for their legos, and not for their stuffed animals.

Order irrelevance

Applying numbers to the items being counted. A child can start in any order and end with the same number.

No rigid rules with starting with a certain direction such as left/right/middle. Trickier to break in young children

Cardinal principle/ cardinality

Most critical, understanding the value of the number which can be represented in any way.

The final number spoken in a sequence represents the total quantity of items in a set. Able to count 4 tomatoes and conclude that there are 4 total, instead of 2 or 6.

The child understands that the last number used labels in the group’s total size rather than just the last object.

A child passes when you request a number value of objects, they will give you the correct number.

Fact retrieval (arithmetic strategies)

Child can recall the sum from memory without having to count.

Decomposition (arithmetic strategies)

Breaking down numbers with known facts. 6+7= 6+6+1= 13.

Supports mental math, difficult to teach

Phonology

Basic sounds, ~2m-18m

Phoneme

smallest unit of speech sound

Phoneme exs

⁃     Cooing (2 months)- “Oooooaaaaeeee”

⁃     Vocal play (3-7 months)- “Oooooaaabaaa”

⁃     Reduplicative Babbling (6-12 months)- “Babababababababa”

⁃     Jargon (9-18 months)- conversational babbling

Morphology

Meaning, ~12m+

Morpheme

smallest unit of meaningful speech

⁃     Words, and word modifiers (eg, ’s’ for plural, ‘ed’ for past tense, etc.)

⁃     Emergence and expansion of vocabulary:

⁃     First words around 12 months

⁃     Word spurt around 18 months (or 50 words)

Syntax

Grammar rules, ~18m-8y

the most complex piece of language being put together, the latest emergence

How to combine words into sentences

Syntax emerges as

Telegraphic speech

telegraphic speech

short two word sentences of nouns and verbs, 18-24 mos

ex- “more cookie”

Overregulation error

“I eated all of my breakfast” applying basic grammar rules to all sentences

Syntax timeline

⁃     2 word sentences (18 mo)

⁃     3-4 word sentences (2 yrs)

⁃     Complex sentences (4 yrs)

•   Correct grammar (6-8 yrs)- overregulation error before this

Critical period for language

peaks around 1 yr

Word spurt (morphological development)

around 18 months (or 50 words)- 1 word a month early on to 3-4 words per day once the word spurt is hit

First words around 12 months

Overextension

“doggie”- applying the dog schema to anything brown and furry, such as a bear or goat

ex of assimilation