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Alexander Kerensky

A Russian lawyer and politician who served as the Prime Minister of the Russian Provisional Government in 1917.

Alexei

The son of Nicholas II and Alexandra

Arctic/Permafrost

The Arctic refers to the region surrounding the North Pole

Bolsheviks

A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party led by Vladimir Lenin

Boyars

The highest-ranking nobles in Russia before the 17th century.

Communists

Supporters or members of the political ideology advocating for the establishment of a classless society where the means of production are owned and controlled by the community as a whole.

Czar

The title of the ruler in the Russian Empire

Duma

The Russian legislative assembly established in 1906 under Nicholas II

Five Year Plan

A series of centralized economic plans implemented by the Soviet Union

Glasnost

A policy of increased openness and transparency in government and society implemented by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union.

Grand Prince Vladimir of Kiev

A ruler of Kievan Rus who converted to Christianity and played a significant role in the Christianization of the region.

Hemophilia

A genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to form blood clots

Ivan the Great

Also known as Ivan III

Ivan the Terrible

Also known as Ivan IV

Josef Stalin

The leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953

Kievan Rus

A medieval federation of East Slavic tribes and city-states that emerged in the 9th century and laid the foundation for the future Russian state.

Lenin's promise "Land

Peace

Mikhail Gorbachev

The last leader of the Soviet Union who implemented reforms such as glasnost and perestroika

NEP (New Economic Plan)

An economic policy introduced by Lenin in 1921 to rebuild the Soviet economy

Nicholas II

The last Tsar of Russia who abdicated in 1917

Nikita Khrushchev

The leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964

Oprichniki

Ivan the Terrible's personal guard and secret police force

Perestroika

A policy of political and economic restructuring implemented by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in the 1980s.

Peter the Great

The Russian Tsar who modernized Russia and expanded its territory

Purge

The removal

Rasputin

A Russian mystic and advisor to the Romanov family

Russian Orthodox Church

The dominant religious institution in Russia

Serfs

Unfree agricultural laborers who were bound to the land and under the control of noble landowners in feudal societies.

Siberia

A vast region in Russia

Socialists

Advocates of a political and economic system characterized by collective ownership and democratic control of the means of production.

Steppe

A vast

Taiga

The world's largest biome

Tribute

Payment

Tundra

A cold

Vladimir Lenin

The leader of the Bolshevik Party and the first head of the Soviet Union

War communism

A policy implemented during the Russian Civil War

1948 War

Also known as the Arab-Israeli War or the War of Independence

1967 War/Six-Day War

A brief but decisive conflict between Israel and the neighboring Arab states of Egypt

Abbasids

The Abbasid dynasty was the second Islamic caliphate (750-1258 CE) that succeeded the Umayyads. They moved the capital to Baghdad and played a significant role in promoting Islamic culture and knowledge.

Abu Bakr

The first caliph of Islam

Ahl al-dhimma

Refers to the non-Muslim subjects living under Islamic rule who were granted protection and certain rights in exchange for paying a poll tax (jizya).

Ali

Ali ibn Abi Talib was a cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. He is revered by Shia Muslims as the first Imam and the rightful successor to the caliphate.

Arab revolt of 1936-1939

A widespread uprising by Palestinians against British rule and Jewish immigration in Mandatory Palestine during the years 1936-1939.

Balfour Declaration

A statement issued by the British government in 1917 expressing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.

Caliph

The political and religious successor to the Prophet Muhammad

Camp David Accords

A peace agreement signed in 1978 between Egypt and Israel

Crusaders

Christian armies from Western Europe who conducted a series of military campaigns

Cuneiform

One of the earliest systems of writing

Desalination

The process of removing salt and other impurities from seawater to produce freshwater suitable for human consumption and irrigation.

Five Pillars of faith

The fundamental religious obligations of Islam

Had crime

In Islamic law

Hadith

The sayings

Hajj

The annual pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia

Hejira

The migration of the Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE

Imam

In Shia Islam

Intifada

Refers to two Palestinian uprisings against Israeli occupation in the late 20th century. The First Intifada took place from 1987 to 1993

Intifada II (or Intifada 2000)

The Second Intifada

Kaaba

A sacred building located in the center of the Great Mosque of Mecca

Khadija

The first wife of the Prophet Muhammad and one of the earliest converts to Islam.

Koran

The holy book of Islam

Mandate

A system of governance established by the League of Nations in the aftermath of World War I

Mawali

Non-Arab Muslims who converted to Islam and were granted full rights within the Muslim community.

Mosque

A place of worship for Muslims

Ottomans

Refers to the Ottoman Empire

PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)

A political organization representing Palestinians

Qesas crime

In Islamic law

Qudi

A Jewish legal scholar and judge responsible for interpreting and applying Jewish law.

Rabbi

A Jewish scholar or teacher who is qualified to interpret and teach Jewish law and scripture.

Ramadan

The ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar

Safavids

A Persian dynasty that ruled Iran from the 16th to the 18th century

Salat

The ritual prayer performed by Muslims

Satrap

A provincial governor in the ancient Persian Empire.

Sawn

The observance of fasting during the month of Ramadan.

Seljuks

A Turkic dynasty that ruled over a vast empire

Shahada

The Islamic declaration of faith

Sharia

Islamic law

Shia

One of the two main branches of Islam

Suez Canal Crisis

A political and military conflict that occurred in 1956 when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal

Suleiman the Magnificent

The tenth sultan of the Ottoman Empire who ruled from 1520 to 1566

Sunni

The largest branch of Islam

Tazir crime

In Islamic law

Temple/Synagogue

A place of worship for Jews

TeNaKh

An acronym for the Hebrew Bible

Theocracy

A form of government in which religious leaders hold the highest authority

Umayyads

The first Islamic caliphate (661-750 CE) following the death of Ali

UN Partition plan of Palestine

A United Nations resolution passed in 1947 that recommended the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states.

Urban II

Pope Urban II

Yom Kippur War (1973 War)

A conflict between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria

Zakat

The giving of alms or charitable donations

Ziggurat

A type of monumental stepped tower built by ancient Mesopotamian civilizations as a temple or religious structure.

Zionism

A political movement that emerged in the late 19th century

Zoroastrianism

An ancient Persian religion founded by the prophet Zoroaster

Andes

The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

A prominent Mexican politician and military leader who served as president of Mexico multiple times during the 19th century. Santa Anna played a central role in the Mexican War of Independence

Aristocracy

A social class consisting of individuals who hold inherited or acquired noble titles and privileges. Aristocrats typically possess wealth

Atahualpa

The last Inca emperor of the Inca Empire

Bartolomé de las Casas

A Spanish Dominican friar

Caudillo

A military or political leader who exercises authoritarian power and often emerges as a strongman or dictator in Spanish-speaking countries. Caudillos typically rely on personal charisma

Columbian Exchange

The widespread exchange of plants

Conquistador

A term used to describe the Spanish and Portuguese soldiers