AP BIO FULL REVIEW

Element

Are substances that cannot be broken down into simple substances by chemical means

90% of the mass of all living things are made up of four natural elements, which are

Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen

Trace elements

Required by an organism only in very small quantities include iron, iodine, and copper

Atom

The smallest unit of an element that retains its characteristic properties

With an atom that are even more subatomic particles called

Protons (+), electrons (-), and neutrons (neutral)

Nucleus chemistry

Protons and neutrons are particles are packed together in a core of an atom called the

Isotopes

Compound

When two or more individual elements are combined in a fixed ratio

Ionic bonds

Formed between two atoms when one or more electrons are transferred from one add to another in order for this to occur first one item loses electrons and becomes positively charged, and the other item gains electrons and becomes negatively charged. The charge forms of the atoms are called ions

Covalent bonds

Find an electrons are shared between two atoms

Hydrogen bonds

Nonpolar covalent

If the electrons are shared equal equally between the atoms

Polar covalent

If the electrons are shared unequally

Polar (water)

Molecules that have partially positive and partially negative charge

Why is water so important?

Known as the universal soul event, it can dissolve many kinds of substances, the hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together contribute to a number of special properties, including cohesion, adhesion surface tension, high heat capacity and expansion on freezing

Cohesion

Molecules stick together, property of water

Adhesion

Molecules stick to other substances, Property of water

Capillary action

Collision and adhesion account for the ability of water to rise up the roots, trunk and branches of trees. This phenomenon occurs in thin vessels.

Acidic (pH)

Contains a lot of hydrogen ions

Bases

Do not release hydrogen ions when added to water they release a lot of hydroxide ions These solutions are said to be alkaline.

pH Scale

The acidity or alkalinity of a solution can be measured by this. Scale is number from one to 14 the midpoint seven is considered neutral. 1 to 7 is Acidic and 7 to 14 is basic.

Organic compound

Molecules that contain carbon atoms

Inorganic compounds

Molecules that do not contain carbon atoms

Polymers

Chains of building blocks that make up macromolecules

Monomer

The individual building blocks of a polymer

Dehydration synthesis

This is how polymers are formed. In these reactions, a water molecule is lost in a larger compound is formed

Hydrolysis

Polymers can be broken down into monomer. The water breaks the bond between the two monomers.

What are the four macromolecule groups?

Carbohydrates proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds that contain carbon hydrogen and oxygen, they usually contain the three element elements in a ratio of Approximately 1:2:1. An example of of this is sugar (glucose)

Monosaccharides

The simplest sugars serve as an energy source for cells. The two most common sugars are glucose and fructose.

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides are brought together. The hydrogen from one sugar molecule combines with the hydroxy group of another sugar molecule. An example of this is Maltose, which is made of two glucose.

Polysaccharide

Made up of many repeated units of Monosaccharides. Can consist of branched or branch chains of monosaccharides. The most common are starch cells, and glycogen.

Proteins

Made of amino acids perform most of the work in your cells in our important structure, function and regulation of tissues and organs. Produce enzymes.

Amino acids

Organic molecules that serve as the building blocks of proteins, there are 20 acids. Has four important parts around a central carbon: And amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen and a R-group.

R group of an amino acid

Amino acids differ only in this which is also called the side chain could be as simple as a hydrogen atom or a complex as charge carbon skeleton.

Three broad categories of amino acids

Hydrophobic ( Non-polar and uncharged ), hydrophilic (Polar and uncharged )and ionic (Polar and charged).

Dipeptide

When two amino acids Join. The car box a group of one amino acid combines with the amino group of another amino acid.

Peptide bond

Bond between two amino acids

Polypeptide

When a group of amino acids is joined together in a string

Protein (structure)

Once upon a peptide chain twist and folds on itself, it forms this Three-dimensional structure. Have four levels.

Chaperone proteins (chaperonins)

The folding of proteins involves other proteins, they help the protein full properly and make the process more efficient

Lipids

Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but not in the ratio typical of carbohydrates. Most common for structure such in the membranes of cells.

Triglyceride

Made of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains attached to it.

Fatty Acids (Lipids)

A long change of carbons in which each carbon is covered in hydrogen. Can be saturated or unsaturated

Saturated fatty acid

Hydrogen along its long carbon chain, or it can have a few gaps were double bonds exist instead of hydrogen

Unsaturated fatty acid

Double bonds in the chain

Poly unsaturated fatty acid

Has many double bonds within the fatty acid. Has a sort of ‘kink’ to it because of the double bonds.

Phospholipids

Special case of lipids contain two fatty acid tails and one negatively charge phosphate head. The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic. The phosphate head of the lipid is hydrophilic. Very important because they make up the cell membrane.

Amphipathic molecule

Molecules that have a hydrophilic region in a hydrophobic region

Glycosidic Linkage

Bond that forms when two monosaccharides are joined together, and the resulting sugar is a disaccharide

Cholesterol

Another type of lipid, a four ringed molecule that is found here and there in membranes generally increases membrane fluidity, except at very high temperatures when it helps to hold things together instead also important for making certain types of hormones and for making vitamin D

Nucleic acids

Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus. Made up of nucleotides. Two kinds of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA.

Nucleotides

Make up nucleic acids

Cells

All living things are composed of this. Life basic unit of structure and function the smallest unit of living material that can carry out all the activities necessary for life

Surface area to volume ratio

Prokaryotic cells

A lot smaller than a eukaryotic cell and is very simple bacteria and Archea are examples. Have no membrane bound organelles. Does not have a nucleus. Contains a cell wall. DNA is found in the nucleoid. Contains ribosomes Like eukaryotic cells. Contains a plasma membrane

Cytoplasm

Substance that fills the inside of a cell

Nucleoid

The genetic material is one continuous circular of DNA molecule that is found free in the cell. In prokaryotes.

Flagella

Some bacteria may have one or more of this long projections used for movement

Organelles

Smaller structures in eukaryotic cells some of these are the same structure seen in prokaryotic cells, but many are uniquely eukaryotic

The Endosymbiosis theory

It is believed that chloroplast and mitochondria used to be independent prokaryotic cells they have since become a permanent part of eukaryotic cells

Light microscopes

Are Used to study stained or living cells they can magnify the size of organism up to 1000 times

Electron microscopes