APUSH Period 7: U.S. Imperialism, WWI, and 1920s Culture

Context of U.S. Growth

The U.S. became a world power between 1890-1945 as industrial growth, new markets, and global competition pushed it from relative isolation to overseas imperialism and world war involvement.

Monroe Doctrine

1823 policy stating that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to future European colonization and that the U.S. would stay out of European affairs.

Closing of the American Frontier

The 1890 Census Bureau declared there was no longer a clear western frontier line of settlement in the U.S.

European Scramble for Africa

Late 19th-century competition in which European powers rapidly colonized most of Africa for resources and markets.

Opium Wars in China

Mid-19th-century wars in which Britain forced China to open ports to foreign trade under unequal treaties.

Commodore Perry and Japan

In 1853-1854, Commodore Matthew Perry used 'gunboat diplomacy' to pressure Japan into opening its ports to U.S. trade.

Economic Growth

Rapid late-19th-century industrialization created overproduction of goods, huge corporations, and powerful financiers.

Immigration

Massive immigration from southern and eastern Europe (and earlier from Asia) filled factories and cities between 1880-1920.

Laissez-Faire Policy

Economic idea that government should interfere as little as possible in business.

Debates over the Role of Government

Conflicts over whether the federal government should regulate business, support labor, and address social problems.

Populist Party

Late-19th-century farmers' party that demanded railroad regulation, a graduated income tax, direct election of senators, and monetary reform.

Gilded Age Reform Movements

Efforts such as civil service reform, antitrust laws, labor unions, and Granger/Farmer alliances that tried to curb corruption and corporate power.

Plessy v. Ferguson

1896 Supreme Court case that upheld 'separate but equal' segregation laws.

Context of Imperialism

Ideas like Social Darwinism, belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority, the need for new markets, and strategic naval theories encouraged U.S. leaders in the 1890s-1900s to seek colonies.

Motives of Imperialists

Imperialists cited economic needs, strategic military/naval bases, national prestige, and racial or religious 'civilizing' missions.

'White Man's Burden' by Rudyard Kipling

1899 poem urging the U.S. to 'civilize' colonized peoples, framed as a moral duty of white Western nations.

Anti-Imperialist League

Organization formed in 1898 to oppose U.S. annexation of the Philippines and other territories.

Self-Determination

Principle that peoples should choose their own government and political status.

John Hay's Open Door Notes (1899)

Diplomatic notes urging European powers to keep China's markets open to all and preserve its territorial integrity.

Theodore Roosevelt's 'big stick' policy

Roosevelt's approach to foreign policy summed up as 'speak softly and carry a big stick.'

Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

Addition to the Monroe Doctrine asserting the U.S. right to intervene in Latin American countries to stabilize them.

Panama Canal (1903)

Strategic canal built across Panama to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans under U.S. control.

Taft's dollar diplomacy

President Taft's policy of promoting U.S. interests abroad by encouraging American investments in Latin America and East Asia.

U.S. intervention in Mexico (1910)

During the Mexican Revolution, the U.S. sent troops and exerted pressure to protect American lives and property.

Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis (1893)

Historian who argued that the frontier experience shaped American democracy, individualism, and ingenuity.

Alfred Thayer Mahan's Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890)

Naval officer who argued that great nations needed strong navies, overseas bases, and control of sea lanes.

Great White Fleet

Group of new, white-painted U.S. battleships sent around the world by Roosevelt (1907-1909) to demonstrate American naval power.

President McKinley

Republican president (1897-1901) who led the U.S. into the Spanish‑American War and supported overseas expansion. He backed intervention in Cuba, annexed Hawaii and the Philippines, and marked a clear shift toward U.S. imperialism.

Cuban Revolt

Late‑19th‑century Cuban uprising against Spanish rule, marked by brutal Spanish repression and reconcentration camps. Sensational coverage of Cuban suffering built U.S. sympathy for rebels and created pressure for American intervention.

Yellow Journalism

Sensationalist newspaper reporting that exaggerated or invented stories to attract readers, associated with Hearst and Pulitzer. It inflamed U.S. public opinion against Spain and helped build support for war in 1898.

Jingoism

Intense, aggressive nationalism that favored war and expansion to assert national strength. Jingoistic sentiment pushed politicians toward a tough stance on Spain and made compromise less likely.

The USS Maine

U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor in February 1898, killing over 250 sailors. Though the cause was unclear, many Americans blamed Spain, using the event as a rallying cry ('Remember the Maine') for war.

Spanish-American War (1898)

Short war between the U.S. and Spain fought in Cuba and the Philippines. The U.S. victory resulted in Cuba's nominal independence and U.S. control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, signaling the start of an American overseas empire.

Rough Riders

Volunteer cavalry regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish‑American War. Their charge up San Juan Hill became a symbol of American bravery and helped launch Roosevelt's national political career.

Annexation of Hawaii (1898)

U.S. takeover of the Hawaiian Islands after American planters had overthrown the native monarchy earlier in the 1890s. Strategic location and sugar interests drove annexation, turning Hawaii into a key Pacific base.

The Philippine-American War (1899-1913)

Brutal conflict between U.S. forces and Filipino nationalists who resisted American rule after annexation. The war exposed the harsh realities of U.S. imperialism and sparked domestic debate over empire and race.

Puerto Rico

Caribbean island ceded to the U.S. by Spain after the Spanish‑American War. It became an unincorporated U.S. territory, raising long‑term questions about citizenship, constitutional rights, and colonial status.

Teller Amendment

1898 congressional resolution stating that the U.S. would not annex Cuba and would leave control of the island to its people after the war. It reassured anti‑imperialists but was later undercut by continued U.S. influence and occupation.

Platt Amendment

1901 amendment added to the Cuban constitution allowing the U.S. to intervene in Cuba and requiring Cuba to lease naval bases like Guantánamo Bay. It effectively turned Cuba into a U.S. protectorate and showed how the U.S. used indirect control rather than formal colonization.

Definition of 'Progressive'

Reformers from about 1900-1920 who believed government should actively address social, political, and economic problems caused by industrialization. They pushed for regulation of business, political democracy, social justice, and moral reform.

Muckrakers

Investigative journalists who exposed corruption, social injustice, and corporate abuses in magazines and books. Their work raised public awareness and built support for Progressive legislation such as antitrust laws and labor protections.

Ida Tarbell

Muckraking journalist who exposed the unfair practices of Standard Oil in a series of articles and a book. Her work helped build public support for breaking up monopolies under antitrust laws.

Upton Sinclair

Socialist writer whose novel 'The Jungle' described horrific conditions in the meatpacking industry. Public outrage over food safety led directly to federal regulation in the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act.

Jacob Riis

Journalist and photographer who documented urban poverty in 'How the Other Half Lives.' His images of tenement life spurred calls for housing reform and better city services.

Conde Nast

Magazine publisher whose outlets (like early mass‑market magazines) helped spread muckraking journalism and Progressive ideas. By providing a platform for reform writers, he aided the broader Progressive movement.

Settlement Houses

Community centers in poor urban neighborhoods that provided services like education, childcare, and social support, often run by middle‑class women. They helped immigrants and the poor adapt to city life and became hubs of reform activism.

National American Woman's Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

Major women's suffrage organization that pursued state‑by‑state campaigns and later a federal amendment. Its work laid the groundwork for the ratification of the 19th Amendment.

Anti-Saloon League/Prohibition

Powerful reform organization that focused on banning alcohol, arguing it caused poverty, crime, and family problems. Their lobbying helped secure the 18th Amendment, which established national Prohibition.

16th Amendment

Constitutional amendment allowing a federal income tax. It provided the government with a more stable revenue source to fund Progressive reforms and reduce reliance on tariffs.

17th Amendment

Amendment providing for direct election of U.S. senators by the people instead of state legislatures. It aimed to reduce corruption and make the Senate more responsive to voters.

18th Amendment

Amendment that banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages nationwide. It was seen as a Progressive moral reform but led to bootlegging and organized crime.

19th Amendment

Amendment granting women the right to vote nationwide (1920). It capped decades of suffrage activism and expanded democracy, though many women of color still faced barriers.

Referendum

Reform that allows citizens to vote directly on laws proposed by the legislature. It was meant to give voters more direct control over policymaking and weaken corrupt political machines.

Recall

Procedure allowing voters to remove elected officials from office before their term ends. Progressives saw recall as a tool to hold politicians more accountable.

Initiative

Process that allows citizens to propose laws directly by petition and put them on the ballot.

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

Law that prohibited the sale of mislabeled or contaminated food and drugs.

Children's Bureau in the Department of Labor (1912)

Federal office created to study and improve child welfare and labor conditions.

Robert La Follette

Progressive governor and senator from Wisconsin who pioneered reforms like direct primaries.

John Muir

Naturalist and writer who championed preservation of wilderness for its own sake.

President Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt

Progressive Republican president (1901-1909) who used federal power to regulate corporations.

National Park System

Network of protected public lands set aside for conservation and recreation.

Forest Reserve Act

Law allowing the president to set aside forest lands as protected reserves.

President William Taft

Roosevelt's successor, who continued some Progressive policies but was seen as more cautious.

Trust Busting

Government actions to break up monopolies and large corporations under antitrust laws.

Enforcement of Sherman Antitrust Act

Use of the 1890 law to prosecute monopolies that restrained trade.

Clayton Antitrust Act

1914 law that strengthened antitrust enforcement and exempted labor unions from being prosecuted as trusts.

Election of 1912

Four-way presidential race between Taft, Roosevelt, Wilson, and Debs.

Progressive/Bull Moose Party

Third party formed by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 after a split with Taft Republicans.

Woodrow Wilson

Democratic Progressive president (1913-1921) who championed the 'New Freedom' program.

Segregation of Federal government

Wilson's administration implemented racial segregation in federal offices.

The Birth of a Nation

1915 film that portrayed the Ku Klux Klan as heroic and African Americans as dangerous.

Return of the KKK

Resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1910s-1920s, now targeting not only Black Americans but also immigrants.

NAACP

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909 to fight racial discrimination.

Immigration Act of 1917 and Asiatic Barred Zone

Law that imposed literacy tests on immigrants and barred immigration from a broad zone of Asia.

Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and Immigration Act of 1924

Laws that set numerical quotas heavily favoring immigrants from northern and western Europe.

Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

Law granting U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States.

Eugenics

Pseudo-scientific movement claiming society could be improved by encouraging 'fit' people to reproduce.

Compulsory sterilization

Laws allowing the state to forcibly sterilize people deemed 'unfit.'

Margaret Sanger

Birth control advocate who opened clinics and promoted contraception.

Race, Traits, and Tendencies of the American Negro (1896)

Pseudo-scientific racist text that claimed to analyze Black Americans' traits.

Democracy vs Bureaucracy

Progressive tension between expanding democratic participation and building expert-run government agencies.

U.S. victory in the Spanish-American War

Resulted in Cuba's nominal independence and U.S. control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, signaling the start of an American overseas empire.

President Theodore 'Teddy' Roosevelt

Progressive Republican president (1901-1909) who used federal power to regulate corporations and conserve natural resources.

How did America's views on intervention in Europe change before, during and after WWI?

Before 1917, most Americans favored neutrality and staying out of European power politics; by 1917, many accepted intervention as necessary to defend U.S. rights and 'make the world safe for democracy,' but after the war a strong backlash toward isolationism re-emerged.

Isolationists vs Interventionists

Isolationists argued the United States should avoid alliances and wars in Europe, while interventionists believed American interests and ideals sometimes required entering conflicts.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1914)

Wilson's 1914 statement declaring the United States neutral in World War I and urging Americans to be 'impartial in thought as well as in action.'

MAIN Causes of WWI

The acronym MAIN stands for Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism, the long-term causes that made Europe a 'powder keg' before 1914.

Militarism

The policy of building up large standing armies and navies, and glorifying military power as a key to national strength.

Alliances

Binding agreements among nations to support each other in war, such as the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.

Imperialism

Competition among European powers for colonies and global influence in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

Nationalism

Strong pride and loyalty to one's nation or ethnic group, often coupled with the desire for political independence.

Allied vs Central Powers

In WWI, the Allied Powers initially included Britain, France, and Russia, while the Central Powers were led by Germany, Austria‑Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.

Trench Warfare

A style of fighting in which armies dug long trenches facing each other, leading to stalemates and massive casualties in 'no man's land.'

Sinking of the Lusitania (1915)

The British passenger ship torpedoed by a German U‑boat in 1915, killing nearly 1,200 people, including over 100 Americans.

Zimmerman Telegram (1917)

A secret German proposal urging Mexico to join a war against the United States in exchange for help recovering lost territories in the Southwest.

Unrestricted submarine warfare (1917)

Germany's policy of using U‑boats to sink any ship, including neutral and passenger vessels, in British waters without warning.

Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)

Wilson's 1918 blueprint for a just postwar peace, calling for open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, lower tariffs, arms reductions, self‑determination for national groups, and the creation of a League of Nations.

Wilson's "Moral Diplomacy"

Wilson's foreign policy that claimed the U.S. should support democratic governments and human rights rather than recognize oppressive regimes.

Economic ties with Great Britain

Before 1917, the United States traded heavily with Britain and the Allies, aided by British control of the seas and orders for American food and war materials.

America as an economic world power

WWI turned the United States into the world's leading creditor and industrial supplier, as European powers borrowed heavily and bought U.S. goods.