Public Opinion

evidence

use of factual statements, quantitative information, opinions advanced by (other) credible sources

narrative

use of characters, plot lines, and dramatic devices -stories, essentially

• creates memorable mental images that are highly accessible

• feels almost like personal, direct experience

• puts us in a state of mind that is not likely to elicit counterarguments

social learning theory

it says people learn by observing others, especially role models, we don't need direct experience—we learn through watching, imitating, and seeing consequences (rewards or punishments).

framing

the way an issue is posted, overarching way an idea is communicated

powerless speech

hesitations, hedges, tag questions, disclaimers

forceful language

tends to have a negative effect on persuasion

• two components of it: controlling speech and demeaning speech

reactance

a negative reaction people have when they feel their freedom to choose is being threatened. Instead of complying, they may do the opposite of what's being suggested.

metaphor

makes a vivid comparison between 2 concepts, "A is B" transferring attributes of B to A

fear appeal

a persuasive communication that tries to scare people into changing their attitudes by emphasizing negative consequences that will happen if they do not comply.

illusion of invulnerability

we believe we're less likely than others to experience negative life events

3 main reasons:

• don't want to admit that it's possible

• don't fit the stereotypes we have of victims

• delay costs until we're older, enjoy the moment EPPM - threat information

EPPM - threat information

• threat information: the problem

• susceptibility: communicate that it is likely that the bad outcome will occur.

EPPM - efficacy information

efficacy information: the solution

• response efficacy: there is a solution that works!

• self-efficacy: you can do it/it's easy

guilt appeal

a negative emotional response

2 key processes:

• empathy: feel for the endangered cause/group, to trigger norm to help―and thus, guilt for not doing so

• efficacy: like fear, solutions must be both doable and effective

humour appeals

just being funny does not often persuade people to change their values or opinions, or do something that's not in their interests

warmth appeals

appeals that invoke a warm feeling: kindness, nostalgia, pride, brotherhood, patriotism, etc.

advertising

the paid promotion of a product/service

marketing

the broader term for the activities and processes a society uses to communicate about products and services to the masses.

branding

the process of defining a commercial entity so that it is perceived as unique and different, and can be quickly called to mind

subliminal perception

perception of an object without awareness that it's perceived

subliminal advertising

includes a brief, specific message (picture, words or sounds) that cannot be perceived at a normal level of consciousness (even if you direct all your attention to it).

placebo effect

refers to an artificial treatment, influences behavior because individuals, assuming it is real, attribute power to the treatment

mere exposure

through repeated exposure to a message, we come to evaluate that message more favorably

why does mere exposure work and what happens when it does?

why does it work?

• messages easier to process if already seen/heard

• people attribute higher credibility to messages they repeatedly receive

• repeated exposure brings comfort and familiarity

why doesn´t it work?

• best for neutral products/issues about which we do NOT yet have a strong attitude

• does not work for negative attitudes―can backfire

• for attitude formation, not change

association

ads often attempt to associate feelings or ideas with products

classical conditioning

can link a neutral stimulus with "higher-order"

symbols

a visual object (sign) with social/cultural meaning

semiotics

study of how signs get this meaning

accessibility

the extent to which people can "call up" an attitude from memory

associative memory network

Combo of association and accessibility brands try to build

cognitive response approach

• people's own reactions (cognitions) are critical to persuasion - often, more important than the message itself!
• can include pro arguments and counterarguments
• persuasion occurs if more pro arguments occur

forewarning

when a persuader warns of intentions, so resistance increases - persuader starts thinking of counterarguments

inoculation theory

a persuasion theory that suggests you can make people more resistant to future persuasive attempts by exposing them to a weakened version of opposing arguments

• e.g. politicians do this all the time: "My opponent is going to try to tell you that x,y,z. But let me tell you..."

elaboration likelihood model

model charts how likely it is that people will think hard (elaborate) on a message.

assumes we sometimes think hard about persuasive messages and decisions...but sometimes we don't.

people process communication in two ways: central and peripheral.

central route

carefully evaluate arguments, ponder implications, relate content to own ideas and values.

peripheral route

superficial examination of info, focus on simple cues - use of heuristics = simple decision rules

need for cognition

tendency to engage in/enjoy effortful thinking
• people high in it are often more motivated to process through the central route
- (they enjoy it more)

peripheral cues

superficial features (not the message content) that influence attitude change in the peripheral route of persuasion (from the elaboration likelihood model)

when they work:

• audience is not motivated or unable to think deeply

• low involvement with the topic
  distracted or rushed audiences

• low NFCs more persuaded by peripheral cues

heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb we use to make quick decisions or judgments without deep thinking.

multiple functions postulate

message features can serve multiple functions

• acts as peripheral cue in a low-elaboration context

• acts as an argument in a high-elaboration context

• acts as a catalyst to thinking, an inducement to process centrally, when motivation/ability to process is moderate

• acts as booster of confidence in own thoughts, when greater elaboration is likely

authority

It derives from one's position in a social structure

• in a particular setting, some people are perceived to have the right to tell others what to do and how to behave.

milgram's experiments

designed to measure obedience to authority, especially malevolent (evil) authority

credibility

audience members' perceptions that a communicator is believable

• not something a communicator has or doesn't; more complex, perceptual and dynamic than that

• it's a two-way street: persuaders must earn it from audience through effective communication

• it is also easily lost

characteristics of credibility

• confidence

  • expertise

  • perceived knowledge or ability of the communicator; special skills

  • trustworthiness

what factors influence which aspects of credibility will matter most in a situation?

• communicator role

• cultural dynamics

knowledge bias

we often assume a communicator has this, meaning they are biased based on their background and identity.

key idea of knowledge bias

when communicators are perceived to violate the knowledge bias, they gain credibility

• when Steve Jobs says we should not let kids use Ipads.

reporting bias

when a communicator seems to just be saying what the audience wants to hear

• when confirmed, the speaker is less credible

• when disconfirmed, the speaker is more credible

social attractiveness

like authority and credibility, this generally makes people more persuasive.
3 aspects of …:

• likability

• similarity (to audiences)

• physical attractiveness

likability

speakers who are like this are often more persuasive because:

• make you feel good - so you transfer positive feelings to their message

• put you in a good mood―which makes you access positive thoughts about their message

• can easily convince you of goodwill

• studies show that nonverbal behavior can increase it

• touching (be careful! this is highly contextually-dependent!)

• eye contact, Smiling

similarity

speakers who share values/perspectives with audience are often more convincing

• -induces positive emotions and positive thoughts

• also prompts comparison between communicator and audience

physical attractiveness

more attractive communicators are often more persuasive because:

• people more likely to pay attention

• attractiveness becomes associated with message

• people like and identify with attractive speakers

• attractive people might be better speakers

strong attitudes

are acquired from an early age since we learn, rehearse and look our roles models having them, they are characterized by…

• importance (we care deeply about the issue)

• ego-involvement (involves core values/self)

• extremity (not close to neutral)

• certainty (we're convinced of it)

social judgement theory

people evaluate issues based on where they already stand on the topics, they do not asses a message on its objective qualities and they compare it to their own attitudes

>3 main concepts

• latitudes of acceptance, rejection, and non-commitment

• assimilation and contrast (These are perceptual mistakes or distortions based on our initial attitude. If they have strong attitudes, people engage in selective and biased perception of new info).

• ego-involvement

latitudes

attitudes as a continuum of evaluations, from 0% to 100% agreement with own position, latitudes are ranges of acceptable and unacceptable positions

assimilation

overestimate similarity between friendly/similar messages and own attitude

• as long as in LOA (latitude of acceptance), or even LON (latitude of none commitment)

contrast

overestimate difference between somewhat conflicting messages and own attitude

• as soon as in LOR (latitude of rejection)

ego involvement

• when an issue touches on your self-concept or core values, you become this.

• these are the hardest attitudes to change.

• reject nearly everything that doesn't match prior attitude.

selective perception

tendency to interpret information in a way that fits your existing beliefs or attitudes, often ignoring or minimizing conflicting information.

selective exposure

tendency to seek out information that supports your existing views and avoid information that contradicts them

confirmation bias

tendency to process social information by seeking out and selectively interpreting evidence so it confirms one's preexisting view to perceive events in ways that fit their prior attitudes

attitude accessibility theory

theory which helps us understand strong attitudes

• accessibility: degree to which attitude is automatically activated from memory, the stronger = more accesible

• associations: links among components of an attitude, stronger attitude = stronger association = more accesible the attitude

implicit attitude

involuntary, uncontrollable and at times automatic responses with unknown origin

• the faster the response, the more accesible the attitude

dual attitudes

• explicit: govern behavior

• implicit; uncontrollable responses

motivational interviewing

instead of making argument, you help people find their own reason to change

• start by interviewing them with open-ended questions and listen carefully to understand

• ask how they think policies might work, rather than why

• listen for "change talk" and ask them to elaborate

• if they express a desire to change, you guide them toward a plan

how can we persuade someone with a strong attitude?

motivational interviewing

• expose them to a role model who holds the different view

• induce them to see the issue from the other side's point of view

• remind them that they value fairness and being able to see different points of view.

• frame the issue in terms consistent with the person's own perspective

functions of attitudes: knowledge

make sense of/explain the world, esp. baffling events

• to explain a case of cyberbullying among children, we say it's the fault of social media, and adopt a negative attitude toward social media.

functions of attitudes: utilitarian

obtain rewards/avoid punishment or difficulty., as it makes things easier in a practical sense, adopting a positive attitude toward things we don't like, such as cleaning

functions of attitudes: social adjustive

group acceptance and wanting to fit in

functions of attitudes: social identity

express self and aspirations

functions of attitudes: value expressive

express core values and beliefs.

functions of attitudes: ego defensive

shield from discomfort

• negative attitude toward a rival or competitor

• hating our ex as they broke our heart

norms

beliefs about appropriate behavior in a given situation

• these guide and constrain behavior, we may not express them if we feel they violate …. in a specific situation

roles

parts we play in relation to others in a given situation (child, parent, friend, student)

• guide and constrain behavior, we may not express an attitude if it doesn't fit the … we're playing at the time

script

a set of expectations about how we should behave or what we should say in a specific situation

• also guide and constrain behavior! We may not express an attitude if it doesn't fit a …

high self monitors

people who naturally change their behavior to fit the situation, and monitor their public self

• less attitude behavior consistency

low self monitors

People who act like themselves regardless of the situation, and don't change depending on context

• more attitude behavior consistency

compatibility principle

attitudes will strongly predict behavior only when both are measured at the same level of specificity

• your attitude toward your education in general probably predicts whether you generally work hard and study a lot, but that general attitude may not predict well whether you study for a specific exam or turn in a particular essay on time.

reasoned action approach

what are the 3 key factors that influence behavioral intention?

• attitude toward the behavior – belief it leads to good/bad outcomes.

  • Based on beliefs about outcomes and evaluation of those outcomes.

• perceived norms – what others think and do.

  • Includes injunctive norms (what others think we should do) and descriptive norms (what others actually do)

• perceived behavioral control – confidence in ability to perform behavior

  • predicts behavior well if rational.

  • critics: less effective for irrational/spontaneous actions

fazio's accessibility focused model

attitudes predict spontaneous behavior if:

• attitude is activated from memory at the moment of decision

• attitude influences perception of the situation

other factors:

• motivation & opportunity also matter.

• without time or effort, we act on accessible (automatic) attitudes.

if “texting & driving = bad” comes to mind, we won’t do it. If not, we might.

social influence

broad process in which the behavior of one person alters the thoughts and actions of another

coercion

when the influencer delivers a believable threat of some consequence, deprives the individuals of some level of freedom and attempts to convince the individual act contrary to her preferences - most unethical

manipulation

persuader hides true persuasive goals, hoping to mislead the recipient.

propaganda

communicator has near or total control over transmission of information.Relies on media to reach masses of individuals with false, deceptive, frequently covert messages.

rethoric

use of argumentation, language, and public address to influence audiences

logos

in greek = words, logical argumentation and persuade using it

ethos

the character of the communicator, an appeal to the audience based on the credibility of the speaker, said speaker must convey 3 things - practical intelligence, virtuous character and good will

pathos

use of emotion, persuader must know enough about audience to ascertain emotional state

utilitarianism

Jeremey Bentham and John Stuart Mill (18th century), actions should be judged on whether they produce more positive than negative consequences, obliged to make a choice that will lead the most happiness to greatest number

deontological theory

strict rules to determine right and wrong - never lie, cheat, steal, kill or use people as a means to an end, your moral value is in intention not outcome

attitudes

a learned, global, typically emotional, evaluation of an object (person, place, or issue) that influences thought and action.

beliefs

cognitions about the world—subjective probabilities that an object has a particular attribute or that an action will lead to a particular outcome.

values

ideals guiding principles in one´s life - freedom, equality, power, self- fulfillment

expectancy value approach

a person´s belief about the outcomes of a behavior and how much they value those outcomes

• Attitude = belief x value

you believe (expectancy) that studying will help you pass your exam, and you really value (value) passing, then you will have a positive attitude towards studying

symbolic approach

attitudes being more shaped by emotions, value and identity than by facts or logical arguments (flags are an example)

ideological approach

world view that connects and structures multiple attitudes, usually political, top down approach - meaning that attitudes flow down from ideologies

what does expectancy value stress?

beliefs

what does symbolic approach stress?

feelings

what does ideology stress?

worldviews

intra-attitudinal consistency

refers how well different components of single attitude fit together- hating when cognitive inconsistency occurs

• cognitive (thought) - exercise it healthy

• affective (emotions) - like working out

• behavioral (actions) - go to the gym

• = consistency

ambivalence

when a person has mixed or conflicting feelings about something—both positive and negative attitudes at the same time.