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what subject did psychology originate from
philosophy
when did psychology become its own subject
17th century - 1800s
who do we know as the first psychologist
Wilhelm Wundt
where was the first psychology lab created
Leipzig University - Germany
what did Wundt propose in regards to why psychology should be studied
all aspects of human behaviour should be tested experimentally and believed to do this empirically (understanding the senses)
what is structuralism
to investigate the nature of human consciousness through our sensations (how we feel) and perception (how we see thingS) down to their individual elements
what is introspection
it is a process in which a person gains knowlgade about is/her own mental and emotional state (systematic analysis of our conscious experience)
who did Wundt orignally test introspection on
his colleagues then himself
how did Wundt test introspection
presented parcipants with carefully controlled stimuli (most cases = moving images or auditory tones eg. ticking metronome)
they were asked to provide a description of inner processes they experienced (eg. thoughts or feelings towards the stimuli) an these results were recorded
evaluating Wundt
strength: method was reliable and valid and paved the way for scientific approaches - empirical method instead of using just facts, standardised procedure and controlled environment = more reliable research and better replications (more consistent results)
limitation: considered unscientific today - relied on participants self-report (bias and subjective) and participants may have hidden or withheld information making results inaccurate
1900s psychology
behaviourist questioned the usefulness of introspection - subjective methods
focus on behaviour that could be seen and carefully controlled
1950s psychology
introduced studying the mind - cognitive psychology (input = what we see or experience in the environment and process = how the brain responds output = our behaviour)
more legitimate and highly scientific studies
1980s psychology
utilised advances in technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen
understand relationship between genes and behaviour
evaluating modern psychology
strength: scientific research - controlled and unbiased (objective) measures taken to keep it accurate
limitation: not all approaches use objective methods (eg. humanistic approach fails to account for demand characteristics)
4 types of behaviourist approaches
classical conditioning, operant conditions, reinforcement and Skinner’s research
when was the behaviourist approach introduced
start of the 20th century
what is classical conditioning
when a stimulus is consistently associated with another stimulus and trains to produce a consistent response
who tested classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov (1927)
experimentally testing dogs in a lab to see the effect of classical conditioning
method: paired an unconscious stimuli (food) with a neutral stimuli (bell) to produce a conditioned response (salivating) to the now conditioned stimuli (bell)
what is positive reinforcement
when something pleasant is added to a situation
what is negative reinforcement
when something unpleasant is removed to a situation
what is positive punishment
when something unpleasant is added from a situation
what is negative punishment
when something pleasant is removed from a situation
who came up with operant conditioning
B.F Skinner
what is Skinner’s box
a box containing a rat which tested reinforcement and punishment to condition the rat
reinforcement in Skinners box situations
positive: pulling the lever = food
negative: pulling the lever = deactivating the electric shocks
evaluating the behaviourist approach
strength: practical applications and can improve lives - led to developments for treating anxiety disorders eg. phobias (systematic desensitisation)
strength: it is scientific and establishes cause and effect relationships - well controlled and manipulation over extraneous variables, also allows for establishment of cause and effect relationship between consequences and future behaviour (falsifiability)
limitation: research is limited in uses (due to practical and ethical issues) - studies based off animals (pigeons and rats) not humans = more developed and have free will so doesn’t entirely determine reinforcement associations
limitation: it is reductionist and oversimplified - too basic to say all behaviour is caused by simple reflex responses to stimuli shaped by conditioning (no consideration of biological or cognitive accounts and contributions), Seligman = different responses to same stimuli and conditions
fallibility
the hypothesis that reinforcement increases likelihood of repitition
what is reductionist
reducing behaviour down to a basic level/set of principles
Seligman (1970)
not all species will be conditioned to respond the same way to a stimuli - eg. electric shock + snakes = fear in snakes but electric shock + flower doesn’t mean fear of flowers (biological preparedness)
who introduced social learning theory
Albert Bandura
what is social learning theory
acknowledges the important role that mental processes play in interpreting the environment and planning new actions through a direct response of consequences
what is modelling (social learning approach)
when an individual carries out a behaviour and we observe them doing this and we learn the same behaviour (copy it as we look up to them)
what are the 2 types of models for social learning theory
live models - people we encounter on a daily basis (eg. parent or teacher)
symbolic models - characters or people we aspire to copy the behaviour of (eg. celebrities or media characters)
what is imitation (social learning theory)
when we observe a behaviour being modelled and we reproduce the behaviour ourselves through 3 steps
what are the 3 steps of imitation in social learning theory
we identify in some way with the model
we perceive that we have the ability to perform the model’s behaviour
we expect that the behaviour will have positive consequences
why is identification important in social learning theory
identification with a model suggests that we are more likely to experience the same outcome as the model (which we believe is positive)
what is vicarious reinforcement
when we frequently observe the positive outcome of a behaviour and so imitate this behaviour to receive the same positive outcome
what are the meditational processes
Attention - the extent to which we notice behaviours
retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
motivation - the will to perform the behaviour (often determined by the outcome of the behaviour)
what is meditational processes
internal mental processes that occur after observing the model’s behaviour (the decision whether to imitate the behaviour based on things like vicarious reinforcement and self-efficacy)
what is self-efficacy
whether the observer is capable of successfully reproducing a models behaviour
Albert Bandura (1960s)
testing social learning in a lab
method: a sample of 72 children between 3-6 (half of each gender). Children were all put in a room with an adult and other toys (including a boba doll). One group saw an adult acting aggressively towards the boba doll (throwing it, kicking it, punching it and hitting it with a hammer) and the other group saw an adult playing quietly with a construction set. Children were taken to another room (with a boba doll and other toys) and their behaviour was observed
results: children in the aggression group imitated the adult’s behaviour towards the boba doll (boys = more aggressive then girls)
conclusion: children learn social behaviour through the process of observational learning and watching and imitating their models
evaluating social learning theory
strength: it explains cultural differences in behaviour - children learn from observing models around them = explanation for how cultural norms form and vicarious reinforcement encourages the repeat of these behaviours in future
strength: it is scientific - lab study = control over extraneous variables = more reliable
C/A: artificial setting = demand characteristics = less validity
strength: less reductionist than other approaches - no simplification of complex behaviours (aggression), instead the link between the interaction between the environment and cognitive factors to prove the existence of meditational processes taking place
C/A: critiqued for not having enough biological factors (link between brain functions and behaviour)
strength: reciprocal determinism - we play a part in influencing environment and it plays a part in influencing us = reciprocal 2 way process (eg. blue sky with clouds - one says its sunny, another says it might rain)
what is the cognitive approach
the study of internal mental processes
the role of schema
the use of theoretical ad computer models to explain and make interferences about mental processes
the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
what type of method does the cognitive approach use
inferences to make assumptions instead of asking people things about what’s happening in their brain (as they could not tell you)
what is the black box in the cognitive approach
the state between what is input (stimulus) and what is output (response)
which mental processes do psychologists make inferences about (please let Ashleigh tell Maddie props)
perception - use information to solve problems
language
attention - selecting information from environment
thinking
memory - store and retrieve information when its needed
perception
what is a schema
ways in which we store and organise thoughts and information in our minds which are about ourselves and our world around us.
mental frameworks of beliefs and expectations that are refined through experience
why are schemas useful
provide a mental shortcut when processing information
when presented with an unfamiliar situation or thing, schemas make predictions as to what to expect
help to fill in memory gaps
enables us to quickly process information
saves us from being overwhlemed by an environmental stimuli
why are schemas not useful
reliance on schemas can lead to perpetual error and false memories
inaccurate stereotypes of people
pre-misconceptions
Allport and Postman 1947
investigates the influence of schemas on stereotypes
method: people were shown 2 pictures of a white man holding a razor and a black man on the train and then later asked to recall the image
results: due to forgetting and reliance on schemas, people assumed the presence of the razor was due to the black man being aggressive to the white man
conclusion: schemas can be unreliable, tamper with memory and result in false information as we resort to expectations and stereotypes
what is the theoretical model in the cognitive approach
a model that represents how information processing works mostly through pictures/diagrams with boxes to represent structures and arrows to represent sequences/stages
what is cognitive neuroscience
looking at the brain and investigating which brain structure is involved with each mental process
what is dominant paradigm
dominant set of ideas that we use in psychology due to their objectiveness
what does cognitive neuroscience use for proving the link between brain structures and mental processes
neuro-imaging techniques: positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI scans)
what is the purpose of using neuroscience-imaging techniques for the cognitive approach
provide an active image of the living brain, revealing which parents are being used when an individual engages in certain mental processes
Tulving et al (cognitive approach)
used PET scans on individuals when recalling different types of LTM and showed these areas being used:
episodic memory = frontal lobe
semantic memory = temporal lobe
procedural memory = cerebral cortex
McGuire et al (cognitive approach)
see the effect neuro-imaging techniques (fMRI) have on mental processes
method: 16 right handed male London taxi drivers (who had all been doing their job for at least 1.5 years) and used MRI scans to see their brains. These results were compared to 50 males who didn’t drive taxis
results: increased grey matter in the brains of the taxi drivers in the posterior hippocampus
evaluating the cognitive approach
strength: practical applications in real life - led to the development of CBT (cognitive behaviour therapy) and this has been proved successful in treating depression (Beck found of 14 studies, 80% of adults with depression benefitted from therapy and it had a lower relapse rate than drug therapy), it also applies to practical and theoretical context (AI and the development of thinking machines) which may revolutionise how we interact in future
strength: uses scientific methods = very reliable (standardised lab experiments, lots of control) and capable of making cause and effect statements between mental processes and behaviour
C/A: lab experiments = artificial stimuli, lacks ecological validity
limitation: considered machine reductionist - not all human behaviour is caused by internal mental processes (eg. sense and memory) so we need to consider other factors alongside the cognitive approach (eg. inherited biological traits) = oversimplified human behaviour as there is more to it then internal mental processes
what does the biological approach investigate
how biological structures and processes within the body impact behaviour
in what 2 ways do biological psychologists believe human behaviour can be altered
environmentally or genetically
what affect do genes have on behaviour
genes affect behaviour and influence individual psychological difference between people
what do biological psychologists believe about the mind and brain vs cognitive psychologists
biological = mind lives in the brain
cognitive = mental processes of the mind are separate from the physical brain
what is the largest area of the brain
cerebrum - divided into 2 hemispheres (sides) and each hemisphere has 4 lobes
what does the frontal lobe/motor cortex do
movement
higher level cognition
expressive language
what does the parietal lobe/somatosensory cortex do
processing
other tactile sensory information (eg. pressure touch pain)
what does the occipital lobe/visual cortex do
interpreting visual stimuli and information (processing shapes and colours)
what does the temporal lobe/auditory cortex do
interpretation of sounds
language we hear
long term memory
case of Phineas Gage
a railroad constructor had an accident when a metal rod when through his brain’s frontal lobe
damage resulted in a loss of social inhibitions = became angry and impulsive
what is heredity
when the genetic code for a particular characteristic may be passed from a parent to a child (as they carry 50% of the parents genes)
what 2 things do heredity manifestation though the child depend on
how the gene interacts with other genes the child inherited
influence of environmental factors
what is heritability
the extent to which a behaviour (or characteristic) can be attributed to genetics
the more influenced a characteristic is by genetics, the greater its heritability
how can we determine the heritability of psychological traits
comparing the incidence of the trait among the family members who share a varying amount of genetic material
how much genetic material do (non) identical twins share
identical/monozygotic twins = 100%
non-identical/dizygotic twins = 50% (same as all siblings)
statistiques about schizophrenia likelihood in regards to family relationships
chances of having schizophrenia = 1%
chances of having schizophrenia with a sibling that has it = 9%
chances of having schizophrenia with an identical twin that has it = 48%
what is a genotype
an inherited genetic makeup of an individual
copied into the nucleus of every cell
simple terms = the thing itself
what is a phenotype
the observable characteristics of an individual
results from an interaction between genes and environment
simple terms = the symptoms or outcome of the genotype
Genotype vs phenotype
if we know someones phenotype we can’t determine their genotype from this alone
identical twins have the same genotype
identical twins could develop the same phenotype (possibility)
what are neurotransmitters
chemicals produced by the brain that transmit electrical messages between nerve cells in the brain
evaluating the biological approach
strength: it has real world application - links depression to an imbalance of serotonin = developments drug treatments to correct neurotransmitter imbalances and treat conditions (eg. depression)
C/A: drug solutions don’t help all patients (Cipriani 2018)
strength: it is scientific - uses empirical methods and developments in brain scanners make results more reliable and less biased, also makes more predictions about localised brain damage and the impact of later behaviour
limitation: difficult to desperate the influence of nature and nurture - hard to tell whether it is genetic or environmental factors influencing behaviour is all situations
limitation: considered determinsitic - believes human behaviour is governed by internal and biological causes over which we have no control, but it disregards the role free will has on our actions
Cipriani et al 2018
compared 21 anti-depressants and found they were more effective then the placebo group, but the effect was modest = challenges the biological approach as it suggests that brain chemistry alone might not account for all causes of depression
what is the structure of personality according to the psychodynamic approach
ID = unconscious
Ego = unconscious and conscious
superego = unconscious and conscious
when does the psychodynamic approach say behaviour is determined
by early childhood (psychic determination) and between birth and puberty
what does the psychodynamic approach say behaviour is motivated by
instinctive drive: sex and aggression
what is the role of the unconscious
the conscious level = aware of thoughts and perceptions
the pre-conscious level = retrieving thoughts and memories from our mind
unconscious level = ID (something born with)
what is the role of the unconscious
to store biological drives, thoughts and memories that are seen as unacceptable or unpleasant and repress them (lock away) so we aren’t aware of them (eg. sex drive and aggression which we are unconsciously motivated to satisfy - which may affect our behaviour
what is the ID part of our personality
our inherited biological drives
present from birth
operate on the pleasure principle (meaning its driven by basic, selfish desires that demand to be satisfied)
entirely irrational and therefore doesn’t accept gratifying some impulses - inappropriate
what is the ego part of our personality
operates on the reality principle
rational and uses logic/planning to mediate between the demands of the Id and superego to achieve an acceptable solution to obtaining pleasure
what is the superego part of our personality
internalised sense of right and wrong
operates on the morality principle
strives to uphold moral standards and punishes the ego with guilt of wrongdoingings
when does the ID develop
birth
when does the ego develop
2 years
when does the superego develop
5 years
summary of the main function/motivation of the Id
entirely selfish
demands all desires
summary of the main function/motivation of the ego
reduces conflict between id and superego
employs defence mechanisms
summary of the main function/motivation of the superego
internalised sense of right and wrong
represents moral standards of the same sex parent
punishes the ego for wrongdoing
what are defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach
unconscious strategies for helping the ego balance the conflicting demands of the id and superego and prevent anxiety when faced with unpleasant situations that may create guilt or embarrassment
distort reality so we protected from confronting or accepting unpleasant feelings
what is an example repression in the psychodynamic approach
eg = forgetting the trauma of a pets death
what is an example of denial in the psychodynamic approach
eg = continuing to turn up for work after your fired
what is an example of displacement in the psychodynamic approach
eg = slamming a door after an argument
what is an example of rationalisation in the psychodynamic approach
eg = blaming an act of violence on someone looking at you a certain way