Cognitive Psychology Vocabulary Review

These flashcards cover key vocabulary and concepts related to cognitive psychology, including types of memory, models of memory processing, perceptual processes, and intelligence assessments.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences you can consciously recall and describe.

Episodic memory

Long-term memory of personal events and experiences tied to specific times and places.

Semantic memory

Long-term memory of facts, meanings, and general knowledge about the world.

Implicit memory

Memories that influence behavior without conscious awareness, like skills or habits.

Procedural memory

Type of implicit memory for how to perform tasks and skills, like riding a bike.

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action in the future, like taking medicine at 8 pm.

Long-term potentiation

Long-lasting strengthening of connections between neurons that helps learning and memory.

Working memory model

Baddeley’s model that describes working memory as central executive plus separate systems for sounds and visuals.

Working memory

A limited-capacity system that holds and works with information you are using right now.

Central executive

The ‘boss’ of working memory that directs attention and coordinates other parts.

Phonological loop

Part of working memory that temporarily stores and rehearses sounds and words.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Part of working memory that temporarily stores and manipulates visual and spatial information.

Multi-store model

Model that says memory has three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

Very brief storage of information from the senses, lasting only a few seconds or less.

Iconic memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images for a fraction of a second.

Echoic memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly holds sounds for about 3–4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary, limited-capacity store that holds information for about 15–30 seconds.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of information, skills, and experiences.

Automatic processing

Encoding of information with little or no conscious effort, like reading familiar words.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, like studying for a test.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.

Storage

The process of keeping encoded information over time in memory.

Retrieval

The process of bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

Levels of processing model

Idea that deeper, meaning-based processing leads to better long-term memory than shallow processing.

Shallow encoding

Processing information based on simple features like appearance or sound.

Deep encoding

Processing information by focusing on meaning and making connections, which improves memory.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that use patterns, images, or organization to help you remember information.

Method of loci

Mnemonic that links items to remember with specific locations in an imagined place.

Chunking-Grouping

Organizing information into meaningful units to increase how much you can remember.

Categories-Grouping

Sorting information into related groups to make it easier to remember.

Hierarchies-Grouping

Organizing information from broad categories down to more specific details.

Spacing effect

Better long-term retention when study is spread out over time rather than crammed.

Memory consolidation

Gradual process by which memories become stable and long-lasting in the brain, often during sleep.

Massed practice

Cramming information in one long study session with little or no breaks.

Distributed practice

Studying in shorter sessions spread over time; usually leads to better memory.

Serial position effect

Tendency to better remember items at the beginning and end of a list.

Primacy effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency effect

Better recall for the last items in a list.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information over and over without adding meaning to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new information to meaning or prior knowledge to move it into long-term memory.

Perception

Process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information into meaningful experiences.

Bottom-up processing

Perception that starts with basic sensory details and builds up to a whole picture.

Top-down processing

Perception guided by expectations, prior knowledge, and context to interpret details.

Schema

Mental framework based on past experiences that helps organize and interpret information.

Perceptual set

A readiness to see or notice something in a certain way based on expectations.

Gestalt psychology

View that we tend to organize bits of information into meaningful wholes.

Closure

Gestalt principle where we fill in gaps to see a complete, whole object.

Figure and ground

Organizing the visual field into a main object (figure) and background (ground).

Proximity

Gestalt principle where we group objects that are close together as belonging together.

Similarity

Gestalt principle where we group similar-looking items as part of the same pattern.

Attention

Focusing mental resources on certain stimuli while ignoring others.

Selective attention

Focusing on one stimulus or task while filtering out other information.

Cocktail party effect

Ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy room and still notice personally relevant info like your name.

Inattentional blindness

Failure to see visible objects because attention is focused elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failure to notice a large change in a visual scene when it happens during a brief interruption.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues that depend on both eyes working together.

Retinal disparity

Difference between the images in each eye that the brain uses to judge distance.

Convergence

Depth cue based on how much the eyes turn inward when focusing on a close object.

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues that can be seen with one eye alone, like size or perspective.

Relative clarity

Monocular cue where hazier objects are seen as farther away than sharp, clear ones.

Relative size

Monocular cue where smaller retinal images of similar objects are perceived as farther away.

Texture gradient

Monocular cue where a gradual change from coarse to fine texture signals increasing distance.

Linear perspective

Monocular cue where parallel lines appear to meet in the distance.

Interposition

Monocular cue where an object that blocks another is seen as closer.

Perceptual Constancies

Perceiving objects as having the same size, shape, and color even when lighting or viewing angle changes.

Apparent movement

Perception of motion when there is actually none, created by changing images or lights.

Prototypes

Best or most typical example of a category that we compare new items to.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into an existing schema without changing the schema.

Accommodation

Changing or creating schemas when new information does not fit existing ones.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution if followed correctly.

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategies or rules of thumb that speed decisions but can cause errors.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging how likely something is by how much it matches a typical case or stereotype.

Availability heuristic

Estimating how common or likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

Tendency to approach a problem in a way that has worked before, even if it’s not best now.

Priming

When exposure to one stimulus unconsciously affects how you respond to a later stimulus.

Framing

The way information is presented, which can strongly affect decisions and judgments.

Gambler’s fallacy

Mistaken belief that past random events affect future ones in situations like coin flips or roulette.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Tendency to keep investing in something because of what you already spent, even when it’s not worth it.

Executive functions

Higher-level mental skills for planning, organizing, focusing attention, and controlling behavior.

Creativity

Ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Type of thinking that generates many possible solutions to a problem.

Convergent thinking

Type of thinking that narrows options to find one best correct answer.

Functional fixedness

Tendency to see objects as having only their usual function, which can block problem solving.

Testing effect

Improved memory after actively retrieving information instead of just rereading it.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of your own thinking and learning processes.

Intelligence

Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

g (general intelligence)

Overall mental ability that underlies performance across many different tasks.

Multiple intelligence

Theory that people have several separate kinds of intelligence, like musical or social.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Score that compares a person’s mental performance to others of the same age.

Mental age

Level of mental performance typical of a certain chronological age.

Chronological age

A person’s actual age in years.

Standardization

Giving a test to a large, representative group to create norms and uniform procedures.

Validity

Extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Construct validity

How well a test actually measures the theoretical concept it claims to measure.

Predictive validity

Extent to which test scores can accurately predict future performance or behavior.

Reliability

Extent to which a test yields consistent, repeatable results.

Test-retest reliability

Stability of test scores when the same test is given to the same people at different times.

Split-half reliability

Consistency of scores between two halves of the same test.

Stereotype threat

Anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about your group that can hurt performance.

Stereotype lift

Performance boost that happens when people are aware of a positive stereotype about their group.