Neuropsychology Key Terms Exam 1

Chapters 1 - 3

Alexia

the loss of the ability to read

Amnesia

partial or total loss of memory

Apraxia

inability to make sequences of movement that results from the disconnection of motor areas from sensory areas

Ataxia

a neurological condition characterized by a lack of muscle coordination, resulting in clumsy, unsteady movements due to damage to the cerebellum or nervous system.

Symptoms include gait imbalance, poor hand coordination, speech issues (dysarthria), and eye movement abnormalities

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiological processes, including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

axon

usually long and single nerve-cell process that usually conducts impulses away from the cell body

binding problem

the challenge of explaining how the brain integrates disparate features (such as color, shape, motion, and location) processed in separate brain regions into a single, cohesive, and unified perception of an object

The essence of the puzzle: although the brain analyzes sensory events through multiple parallel channels that do not converge on a single brain region, we perceive a unified experience, such as a memory.

brain

The part of the central nervous system that is responsible for processing sensory information and coordinating movements.

brain theory

states that the brain is the source of behavior

brainstem

The hypothalamus, midbrain, and hindbrain. (Some authorities also include the thalamus and basal ganglia

broca’s aphasia

An inability to speak fluently despite the presence of normal comprehension and intact vocal

mechanisms; results from a lesion to Broca’s area. Also called expressive aphasia, or nonfluent aphasia.

Broca’s area

An anterior speech area in the left hemisphere (frontal operculum) that functions with the motor cortex

to produce movements needed for speaking. Damage to this area results in Broca aphasia.

cell assemblies

A hypothetical group of neurons that become functionally connected because they receive the same

sensory inputs; proposed by Donald Hebb to be the basis of perception, memory, and thought. 

cell body (soma)

A core region of the cell that contains the nucleus and other organelles for making proteins. Also called

the soma

central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord that are encased in bone — the skull and vertebrae, respectively — and cannot regrow after damage

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A clear solution of sodium chloride and other salts that cushions the brain and may play a role in

removing metabolic waste. CSF fills the ventricles inside the brain and circulates around the brain,

beneath the arachnoid layer in the subarachnoid space

clinical trial

A consensual experiment directed toward developing a treatment

computed tomography (CT)

An X-ray technique that produces a static, three-dimensional image of the brain in cross section — a CT

conduction aphasia

A type of fluent aphasia resulting from severing fiber connections between anterior and posterior speech zones; speech sounds and movements are retained, but speech is impaired because it cannot be conducted from one region to the other.

corpus callosum

A commissure (fiber system) that connects homotopic areas in the two hemispheres. A split-brain

patient is one whose corpus callosum has been severed.

dendrite

A branching extension of a neuron’s cell membrane that greatly increases the surface area of the cell

and collects information from other cells. 

dorsal stream

A visual processing pathway from the primary visual cortex to the parietal lobe; guides movements

relative to objects

dualism

The philosophical position that two distinct entities underlie human consciousness: one is mind (or

soul), the other is the body

epigenetics

Differences in gene expression related to environment and experience

epilepsy

A condition caused by spontaneous, abnormal discharges of brain neurons as a result of scarring from

injury, infections, or tumors and characterized by recurrent seizures associated with a disturbance of

consciousness.

fluent aphasia

A speech disorder in which a person articulates words in a languagelike fashion, but what is said actually makes little sense; usually results from damage to the left posterior cortex

forebrain

The cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and septum

frontal lobe

All the neocortex and connections forward of the central sulcus.

functional brain imaging

A method of imaging that determines the relative contribution of different brain regions to behavior

glia

Nervous-system cells that provide insulation, nutrients, and support and aid in repairing neurons and

eliminating waste products.

gyri

A convolution (bump) in the neocortex produced by folding

hemispheres

On the left and right sides of the cerebrum and cerebellum, either of the pair of structures constituting

the telencephalon. 

hierarchical organization

A principle of cerebral organization in which information is processed serially, with each level of

processing assumed to represent the elaboration of some hypothetical process.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. On contemporary

intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a value of 100, and a person’s IQ score is expressed relative to 100.

lateral fissure

A deep cleft in the cortical surface of the brain that separates the temporal and parietal lobes. Also called Sylvian fissure

lateralization

A process by which functions become located primarily on one side of the brain

localization of function

The theory that different brain regions have different functions

longitudinal fissure

ma

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A technique that produces a static, three-dimensional brain image by passing a strong magnetic field

through the brain, followed by a radio wave, and then measuring the radiation emitted from hydrogen

atoms

materialism

A philosophical position which holds that behavior can be explained as a function of the nervous system without explanatory recourse to the mind.

mind-body problem

A quandary in explaining how a nonmaterial mind and a material body interact.

minimally conscious state (MCS)

A condition in which a person can display some rudimentary behaviors but is otherwise not conscious.

motor pathways

Nerve fibers that connect the brain and spinal cord to the body’s muscles through the somatic nervous system

natural selection

Darwin’s theory explaining how new species evolve and how existing species change over time; states

that differential success in the reproduction of characteristics (phenotypes) results from the interaction

of organisms with their environment.

neocortex

The newest layer of the brain, forming the outer layer, or “new bark”; has four to six layers of cells; in this book, synonymous with cortex

neural tube

A structure in the early stage of brain development from which the brain and spinal cord develop

neuron

A nerve cell that transmits and stores information: the basic unit of the nervous system; includes the cellbody (soma), many processes (dendrites), and an axon.

neuron theory

the idea that the unit of brain structure and function is the neuron, or nerve cell

neuroplasticity

The nervous system’s potential for physical or chemical change that enhances its adaptability to

environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury. Also called plasticity or brain plasticity.

neuropsychology

Study of the relationships between brain function and behavior.

occipital lobe

A general area of the cortex that lies in the back part of the head

parietal lobe

A general region of the brain lying behind the frontal lobe, beneath the parietal bone

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The collective name for all the neurons in the body that are located outside the brain and spinal cord and can regrow after damage.

persistent vegetative state (PVS)

A condition in which a person is alive but unable to communicate or to function independently at even

the most basic level.

phenotype

Individual characteristics that can be seen or measured

phrenology

The long-discredited study of the relationship between mental faculties and the skull’s surface features.

positron emission tomography (PET)

An imaging technique that detects changes in blood flow by measuring changes in the uptake of

compounds such as oxygen or glucose; used to analyze the metabolic activity of neurons.

psychometrics

The science of measuring human abilities.

sensory pathways

Nerve fibers that convey sensory information to the brain

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

Nerve fibers that are extensively connected to sensory receptors on the body’s surface and to muscles

and that carry information to the CNS. A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system.

species

A group of organisms that can interbreed

spinal cord

Part of the central nervous system that is enclosed within the vertebral column.

Structural brain imaging

A method of brain imaging that describes the structure, cells, and fibers of the brain.

sulci

A cleft in the cortex produced by folding

temporal lobe

An area of the cortex and connections below the lateral fissure, adjacent to the temporal bones.

topographic organization

A neural–spatial representation of the body or areas of the sensory world a sensory organ detects

traumatic brain injury (TBI)

A wound to the brain that results from a blow to the head

trephining

Removing a disc of bone, chiefly from the skull.

ventral stream

A visual processing pathway from the primary visual cortex to the temporal cortex for object

identification and perception of related movements

visual-form agnosia

An inability to see the shapes of objects or to recognize objects or drawings of them

Wernicke aphasia

An inability to comprehend or to produce meaningful speech even though the production of words

remains intact.

Wernicke’s area

Secondary auditory cortex (part of the planum temporale, roughly equivalent to Brodmann’s area 22),

which regulates language comprehension. Also called posterior speech zone.

Mind

The psyche; the faculty, or brain function, by which one is aware of one’s surroundings and by which one

experiences feeling, emotions, and desires and is able to attend, reason, and make decisions.

Wernicke-Geshwind Model

A theoretical model of the neurological organization of language that involves a serial passage of

information from the auditory cortex to the posterior speech zone to the anterior speech zone. 

alleles

An alternative form of a gene; a gene pair contains two alleles.

cladogram

A phylogenetic tree that branches repeatedly, suggesting a classification of organisms based on the time sequence in which evolutionary branches arise.

critical period

A developmental window during which some event has a long-lasting influence on an individual. Also called sensitive period

culture

Complex learned behaviors passed from generation to generation through teaching and experience.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A long, complex macromolecule consisting of two interconnected helical strands; contains an organism’s genetic information

down syndrome

A chromosomal abnormality that results in intellectual disability and other deficits, usually caused by

an extra chromosome 21. Also called trisomy 21.

dystonia

An imbalance in muscle tone, usually excessive muscle tone.

encephalization quotient (EQ)

The ratio of actual brain size to expected brain size for a typical mammal of a particular body size.

epigenetic

Differences in gene expression related to environment and experience.

gene methylation (DNA Methylation)

A process in which a methyl group attaches to the DNA sequence, suppressing gene expression.

genotype

An individual’s genetic makeup

heterozygous

Having two different alleles for the same trait. 

hominins

A term referring to the human family, the primate species that include modern human, extinct human

species, and immediate ancestors, but not apes.

homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a trait.

huntigton disease

A hereditary disorder characterized by chorea (ceaseless, involuntary, jerky movements) and

progressive dementia, ending in death

meme

An idea, a behavior, or a style that spreads from person to person within a culture.

mutation

An alteration of an allele that yields a different version of the allele.

parkinson’s disease

A disorder of the motor system that is correlated with a loss of dopamine in the brain and characterized

by tremors, muscular rigidity, involuntary movements (akathesia), and changes in emotion and

memory. 

phenotypic plasticity

An individual’s capacity to develop into more than one phenotype.

species-typical behaviors

Behavior that is characteristic of all members of a species. Also called species-specific behavior.

Tay-Sachs disease

An inherited birth defect caused by the loss of genes that encode the enzyme necessary for breaking

down certain fatty substances; appears 4 to 6 months after birth and results in seizures, blindness,

degenerating motor and mental abilities, and death by about age 5. 

transgenic animals

A product of technology in which numbers of genes or a single gene from one species is introduced into

the genome of another species, passed along, and expressed in subsequent generations

wild-type

The allele that is most common in a population. 

afferent

Conducting toward a central nervous system area.

amygdala

An almond-shaped collection of nuclei in the base of the temporal lobe; the part of the limbic system

that participates in emotional and species-typical behaviors.

anterior cerebral artery (ACA)

A vessel originating from the carotid artery that irrigates the medial and dorsal parts of the cortex,

including the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral frontal regions, anterior cingulate cortex, corpus callosum,

and striatum.