Unit 3: Psychology

Stability and Change

The debate in developmental psychology regarding whether personality traits and behaviors remain constant or change over time

Nature vs Nurture

The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment and experiences (nurture) play a larger role in shaping an individual

Cross-Sectional Research

A research method that compares different age groups at the same time to examine developmental changes

Continuous and Discontinuous

Theories of development that argue whether growth occurs gradually (continuous) or in distinct stages (discontinuous)

Stages of Development

Theories that propose individuals pass through distinct phases of growth with unique characteristics

Longitudinal Research

A research method that studies the same individuals over an extended period to observe changes over time

Teratogens

Harmful substances that can negatively affect prenatal development

Maternal Illnesses

Diseases a mother contracts during pregnancy that may impact fetal development

Rooting

A newborn reflex in which the baby turns its head toward a touch on the cheek, searching for a nipple

Visual Cliff

An experiment testing infants’ depth perception by using a glass-covered drop-off

Critical Periods

Specific windows of time during which certain developmental milestones must occur for normal development

Adolescence

The transitional period between childhood and adulthood characterized by physical and cognitive changes

Puberty

The stage of development when individuals reach sexual maturity and experience physical changes

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction

Menopause

The natural cessation of menstruation and reproductive ability in women, typically around middle age

Genetic Mutations

Changes in DNA sequences that can result in variations in traits or disorders

Imprinting

A rapid learning process in early development where an animal or human bonds with a caregiver

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive traits that emerge during puberty, such as body hair and voice changes

Menarche

A female’s first menstrual period

Spermarche

A male’s first ejaculation, marking reproductive capability

Sex

The biological classification of individuals as male or female based on reproductive anatomy

Gender

The cultural, social, and psychological roles associated with being male or female

Jean Piaget

A developmental psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children

Schema

A cognitive framework that helps individuals organize and interpret information

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing cognitive schemas

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget’s theory (0-2 years), where infants learn through sensory experiences and movement

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible

Preoperational Stage

Piaget’s second stage (2-7 years), where children develop language but lack logical reasoning

Conservation

The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance

Reversibility

The ability to recognize that numbers and objects can be changed and returned to their original condition

Egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, a child’s difficulty in understanding perspectives other than their own

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand others’ thoughts, feelings, and intentions

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s third stage (7-11 years), when children develop logical thinking about concrete events

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget’s fourth stage (12+ years), where abstract and hypothetical reasoning develops

Lev Vygotsky

A psychologist who emphasized social and cultural influences on cognitive development

Scaffold

Temporary support provided to help a child learn a task they cannot yet do independently

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The difference between what a child can do alone and with help

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to increase with age

Dementia

A decline in cognitive function due to brain damage or disease, often seen in aging

Language

A system of symbols and rules used for communication

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in language

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in language

Cooing

Early infant vocalizations consisting of vowel sounds

Babbling

The stage of speech development where infants combine consonant and vowel sounds

One-Word Stage

When toddlers begin using single words to represent thoughts

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech in which children use short, simple phrases without unnecessary words

Overgeneralization

Applying grammatical rules too broadly, such as "goed" instead of "went

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Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences in language

Grammar

The system of rules governing language structure

Syntax

The arrangement of words into grammatically correct sentences

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s model that explains how different environments influence development

Microsystem

The immediate environment influencing a person, such as family and school

Mesosystem

Interactions between different parts of a person’s microsystem

Exosystem

Indirect influences on a person, such as a parent’s workplace

Macrosystem

Cultural and societal influences on a person’s development

Chronosystem

The role of time and historical context in development

Attachment

The emotional bond between a child and caregiver

Authoritarian Parenting

A strict parenting style with high demands and little flexibility

Authoritative Parenting

A balanced parenting style with clear rules but flexibility and warmth

Permissive Parenting

A lenient parenting style with few rules or consequences

Secure Attachment

A strong, healthy bond between child and caregiver leading to trust

Insecure Attachment

A weaker or inconsistent bond between child and caregiver

Avoidant Attachment

A form of insecure attachment where the child shows little interest in the caregiver

Anxious Attachment

A form of insecure attachment marked by anxiety and uncertainty about relationships

Disorganized Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by inconsistent or fearful behavior

Separation Anxiety

Distress experienced when a child is separated from a caregiver

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people, typically emerging around 8 months of age

Temperament

An individual’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Parallel Play

When children play alongside each other without direct interaction

Pretend Play

Imaginative play where children act out roles and scenarios

Imaginary Audience

The belief in adolescence that others are constantly watching and judging them

Personal Fable

The belief that one’s experiences and emotions are unique and exceptional

Social Clock

The culturally expected timeline for life events such as marriage or parenthood

Emerging Adulthood

The transition period between adolescence and full adulthood (18-25 years)

Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erikson’s theory of eight stages of social and emotional growth

Trust and Mistrust

Erikson’s first stage, where infants develop trust if their needs are met

Autonomy and Shame and Doubt

The stage where toddlers develop independence or doubt their abilities

Initiative and Guilt

The stage where children develop confidence in planning activities or feel guilty

Industry and Inferiority

The stage where children learn skills and feel competent or inferior

Identity and Role Confusion

The adolescent stage of exploring personal identity

Intimacy and Isolation

The stage where young adults form meaningful relationships or feel lonely

Generativity and Stagnation

The stage where middle-aged adults contribute to society or feel purposeless

Integrity and Despair

The final stage, reflecting on life with either satisfaction or regret

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events in childhood, such as abuse or neglect, that can impact long-term health and development

Identity

One’s sense of self, influenced by personal choices, experiences, and social roles

Achievement (of Identity)

When an individual has explored different identities and committed to one

Diffusion (of Identity)

A lack of direction or commitment in one’s identity development

Foreclosure (of Identity)

When an individual commits to an identity without exploration, often influenced by others

Moratorium (of Identity)

A period of active exploration of different identities without commitment

Associative Learning

Learning that involves linking two stimuli or behaviors together

Behavioral Perspective

The psychological approach that emphasizes observable behavior and learning

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an automatic response

Acquisition

The initial learning phase in classical conditioning where the association is formed

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association, triggers a response

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Extinction

The weakening of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without reinforcement

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period