Exam 2 Study Guide: Motivation, Attributions, and Cohesion

What are the two aspects of motivation that should be explained?

Direction and intensity.

What does the direction of effort in motivation refer to?

Whether a person seeks out or avoids a situation.

What does the intensity of effort in motivation refer to?

How hard a person tries.

How do high achievers differ from low achievers in task selection?

High achievers choose moderately difficult tasks to demonstrate competence, while low achievers may choose very easy tasks to avoid failure or extremely difficult tasks where failure is expected.

What is ego goal orientation?

Ego orientation emphasizes comparing performance to others and achieving success through superiority.

What is task goal orientation?

Task or mastery orientation focuses on personal improvement and effort.

Which goal orientation is preferred in performance settings and why?

Task orientation is preferred because it fosters resilience and encourages self-improvement.

What are the three stages of achievement motivation?

1. Autonomous Competence Stage: Self-comparison without external reference. 2. Social Comparison Stage: Comparing abilities with others. 3. Integrated Stage: Combining self-referenced standards and social comparison.

Define intrinsic motivation and provide an example.

Intrinsic motivation is participating in activities for enjoyment, with no apparent reward except the activity itself (e.g., doing a hobby for fun).

Define extrinsic motivation and provide an example.

Extrinsic motivation is driven by anticipation of external rewards (e.g., working for money or trophies).

How does Deci's cognitive evaluation theory explain the effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation?

Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation by shifting focus from enjoyment to the reward itself, although they can enhance motivation if they convey competence without being controlling.

What did Ryan's studies on scholarships reveal about intrinsic motivation?

Athletes on scholarships often felt extrinsically motivated due to performance expectations, which reduced their intrinsic motivation for the sport.

What are some ways to increase intrinsic motivation?

1. Provide positive feedback to boost feelings of competence. 2. Allow autonomy in task choice. 3. Set meaningful and attainable goals.

How do task and ego orientation influence a person's definition of success?

Task orientation focuses on effort and growth, while ego orientation focuses on outcomes.

What are the three views of motivation?

1. Trait: Motivation is a stable characteristic. 2. Situation: Motivation is determined by the environment. 3. Interaction: A combination of personal traits and situational factors.

Which view of motivation is generally considered the most accurate?

The interaction view, as it reflects both internal and external influences.

What is the over justification hypothesis?

It suggests that external rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation when they feel controlling.

What is the multiplicative effect in Deci's Cognitive Evaluation Theory?

When intrinsic and extrinsic motivations align, motivation can be enhanced, especially if rewards reinforce competence.

What is self-efficacy?

Belief in one's sense of competence to do something.

How does self-efficacy relate to motivation?

Self-efficacy is critical in motivation as it explains transitions from expectation to effort.

What does competence motivation theory state about motives to participate in activities?

People are motivated to engage in activities where they feel competent, and success and positive feedback reinforce motivation and self-confidence.

How do goal orientation and perceived competence affect performance behaviors according to Achievement Goal theory?

Individuals with high task orientation focus on improvement and resilience, while those who are ego-oriented focus on outperforming others.

What prediction can be made for someone who is 100% task-oriented and 100% ego-oriented? Is this realistic?

A balanced approach is more realistic as both goal types can play a role in real-world settings.

What are the advantages of task orientation?

Task orientation builds up self and others, is controllable, fosters a strong work ethic, persistence, optimal performances, and acceptance of challenges, promoting self-efficacy.

Distinguish between outcome and task goal orientation. Which should be emphasized in sport and exercise settings?

Task-oriented (process) goals should be emphasized to reach ego-oriented goals.

What are attributions in the context of achievement motivation?

Attributions are explanations individuals create for the causes of their successes or failures, influencing future expectations, emotions, and motivation.

Explain Weiner's attribution theory and its impact on performance expectation, affect, and motivation.

Locus of Causality (internal vs. external), Stability (stable vs. unstable), and Controllability (controllable vs. uncontrollable) affect feelings of control, future expectations, and motivation.

How does internal attribution affect motivation when attributed to effort?

Internal attribution can increase feelings of control but may lead to negative emotions if failure is attributed to internal factors.

What is the impact of stable attributions on future expectations?

Stable attributions can lead to higher confidence in future success if success is seen as stable.

What is the impact of controllable attributions on motivation?

Controllable attributions enhance motivation, as individuals feel they can influence future outcomes.

How can the attribution of a poor performance to 'lack of effort' impact motivation?

It may motivate the individual to change their behavior for future success.

What is achievement motivation?

Achievement motivation is the drive to succeed and accomplish personal goals, focusing on mastering tasks and improving skills.

What is competitiveness and how does it differ from achievement motivation?

Competitiveness is the desire to outperform others, measuring success in comparison to peers, while achievement motivation is internally driven.

What dimensions can any attribution be analyzed on?

Attributions can be analyzed on locus of causality, stability, and controllability.

What is the relationship between task orientation and ego orientation in achievement settings?

Task orientation focuses on personal improvement, while ego orientation focuses on outperforming others; a balance is necessary for realistic achievement.

What role does self-efficacy play in task-oriented individuals?

Task-oriented individuals often experience more opportunities to promote self-efficacy through acceptance of challenges.

Why is a balanced approach between task and ego orientation considered more realistic?

Both goal types can influence performance and motivation in real-world settings.

What are the emotional impacts of attributing failure to 'lack of ability'?

It may decrease motivation and increase feelings of helplessness.

How can attributions influence future performance expectations?

Attributions shape how individuals perceive their control over outcomes, affecting their motivation and emotional responses.

What is the significance of positive feedback in competence motivation theory?

Positive feedback reinforces motivation and self-confidence, encouraging continued engagement in activities.

How does a strong work ethic relate to task orientation?

A strong work ethic is a characteristic of task-oriented individuals, contributing to persistence and optimal performance.

What is the importance of emphasizing task-oriented goals in educational settings?

Emphasizing task-oriented goals helps students focus on personal improvement, which can lead to better long-term outcomes.

What is the primary difference between achievement motivation and competitiveness?

Achievement motivation is internally driven by personal standards, while competitiveness is externally driven by comparison to others.

What are the similarities between achievement motivation and competitiveness?

Both involve a desire for success and accomplishment, and individuals motivated by either are typically focused, persistent, and driven to reach goals.

Why are achievement motivation and competitiveness important?

They drive individuals to set goals, work diligently, and strive for success, fostering growth and development.

How do high achievers differ from low achievers in terms of motivational orientation?

High achievers are generally more intrinsically motivated, focusing on mastering tasks, while low achievers may rely on extrinsic rewards or avoid challenges.

What attribution style do high achievers typically exhibit?

High achievers attribute success to internal factors (e.g., effort, ability) and view failure as an opportunity to improve.

How do low achievers typically attribute their outcomes?

Low achievers tend to attribute outcomes to external factors (e.g., luck, task difficulty), which may lead to learned helplessness.

What is the goal orientation of high achievers?

High achievers are more likely to adopt a task/mastery orientation, focusing on personal growth.

What goal orientation do low achievers tend to adopt?

Low achievers may adopt an ego/outcome orientation, focusing on outperforming others or avoiding failure.

How do high achievers perceive competence?

High achievers typically have a strong sense of competence and view challenges as opportunities.

What is the perceived competence of low achievers?

Low achievers often have lower perceived competence and may avoid challenging tasks.

What type of tasks do high achievers prefer?

High achievers prefer challenging tasks that promote growth and skill development.

What type of tasks do low achievers tend to choose?

Low achievers may opt for easier tasks where success is assured or avoid tasks that could expose weaknesses.

How do high achievers perform under pressure?

High achievers thrive under pressure and perform well in competitive situations.

How do low achievers respond to performance conditions?

Low achievers may experience anxiety or underperform under pressure.

What is the Autonomous Competence Stage in achievement motivation development?

It is the stage (up to age 4) where children focus on mastering tasks independently without comparing themselves to others.

What happens during the Social Comparison Stage of achievement motivation development?

Around ages 5-7, children begin to compare their abilities with peers, fostering competitiveness and influencing self-assessment.

What characterizes the Integrated Stage of achievement motivation development?

At around 7 years and older, children integrate personal competence with social comparison, setting personal goals while being aware of peer achievements.

What is aggression?

Aggression is intentional behavior aimed at causing physical or psychological harm to another person or object.

How does aggression differ from assertive behavior?

Aggression involves anger or hostility aimed at harming others, while assertive behavior is about expressing oneself without intending harm.

What are the criteria for considering an act as aggression?

It must be a behavior, have intent to harm, be directed towards living organisms, and involve harm.

What are the four theories of aggression?

Theories include the instinct theory, frustration-aggression hypothesis, social learning theory, and cognitive neoassociation theory.

Which theories of aggression have the strongest support and why?

Theories with strong support often include social learning theory due to empirical evidence from observational studies.

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Aggression is a direct result of frustration, but it is not always supported as frustration does not always lead to aggression.

What is the revised frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Frustration can lead to aggression if it is learned behavior; this hypothesis has the strongest support.

What is catharsis in the context of aggression?

The idea that everyone has a breaking point, but this has been disproven as it is not always true.

What factors are associated with spectator aggression?

Time of game, alcohol consumption, warm weather, etc.

In what situations is aggression most likely to occur?

Aggression is more likely to occur in high-stress situations, such as competitive sports.

What are the two types of aggressive acts?

Hostile aggression, which aims to inflict injury, and instrumental aggression, which aims to achieve a goal with harm as a byproduct.

What is social loafing?

The tendency to assume someone else will do the work, leading to reduced effort by individuals.

Under what conditions is social loafing more likely to occur?

When individual output cannot be measured, when the task lacks meaningfulness, or when competing against weaker opponents.

What are the four stages of team development in the linear perspective?

Forming (becoming familiar), Storming (playing time and roles), Norming (sense of unity), Performing (energy channeled to success).

What is Steiner's model of productivity?

The best team is not always composed of the best individual players; team dynamics are crucial.

What is the Ringlemann effect?

Individual performance decreases as the number of people in a group increases, exemplified by pulling on a rope.

What is the difference between formal and informal roles in a team?

Formal roles are dictated by the environment or team structure (e.g., coach, quarterback), while informal roles evolve from group dynamics (e.g., mediator, enforcer).

What is cohesion in a team context?

Cohesion is the dynamic process that reflects the tendency of a group to stick together.

What is the difference between task cohesion and social cohesion?

Task cohesion refers to the degree to which team members work together towards a common goal, while social cohesion refers to the degree to which team members like each other.

How can cohesion be measured?

Through questionnaires and sociograms, which observe interactions among group members.

What is the cohesion-performance relationship?

It is a circular relationship where higher cohesion can lead to better performance, and better performance can enhance cohesion.

What are some ways to enhance group cohesion?

Avoid cliques, enhance similarities, foster bonding, and encourage team members to get to know each other.

How can an effective team climate be created?

By establishing clear group roles and norms.

What are some techniques to improve a team's climate?

Proximity (team dinners), distinctiveness (team gear), fairness, social support, and team bonding.

What is the role of intrinsic motivation in team sports?

Increasing intrinsic motivation can enhance individual performance and overall team dynamics.

What is the importance of breaking groups into smaller units?

It helps to create familiarity and improve communication and collaboration among team members.

What is the significance of controlling alcohol in spectator aggression?

Controlling alcohol consumption can reduce the likelihood of aggressive behavior among spectators.

Why should rewards like ribbons be avoided in children's sports?

They may not guarantee motivation and can lead to decreased intrinsic motivation if children feel inadequate.