Unit 1 AP Psych

The brain and our sleep cycle

Phrenology

Studying bumps on the skull

Localization of Function

The idea that various brain regions have particular functions

Neurons

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Cell Body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

Dendrites

A neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

Axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hope from one node to the next

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Refractory Period

In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

All-or-none Response

A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Excitatory Neurons

Neurons that send signals that increase the likelihood of the firing of the action potential

Inhibitory Neurons

Neurons that send signals that decrease the likelihood of the firing of the action potential

Depolarization

The loss of the inside/outside charge difference that causes the next section of axon channels to open

Neural Impulse

The temporary inflow of positive ions during action potential

Neural Efficiency

The improvement in communication speed and effectiveness as myelin sheath develops up to about age 25

Sodium Ions

Positively charged ions that flood into the axon when it fires

Selectively Permeable

A property of the axon's surface that allows certain ions to pass through while blocking others

Chemical Events

Processes that generate electricity in neurons

Synaptic gap

The tiny gap at this junction.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action.

Antagonists

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.

Nervous System

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord; the body's decision maker.

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body; gathers information.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and organs to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

Accelerates heartbeat

A function of the sympathetic nervous system.

Raises blood pressure

A function of the sympathetic nervous system.

Slows digestion

A function of the sympathetic nervous system.

Raises blood sugar

A function of the sympathetic nervous system.

Cools you with perspiration

A function of the sympathetic nervous system that makes you alert.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Endocrine System

The body's 'slow' chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

Adrenal Glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

Above the medulla, helps coordinate movements and controls sleep.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI)

Measures movement of blood molecules (and therefore neuronal activity) to observe brain structures and determine active areas during cognitive tasks.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Records waves of electrical activity in the brain's neurons, used to confirm or rule out various brain conditions.

Mike the headless chicken

A chicken who had its head cut off yet had part of his brain stem still intact, allowing him to live and respond to stimuli.

Ascending neural fibers

Send up sensory info to the brain.

Descending fibers

Send back motor control info from the brain.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Cerebellum Functions

Helps judge time, modulate our emotions, discriminate sounds and textures, and coordinates voluntary movement.

Limbic System

Neural system (including amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Amygdala Functions

The Amygdala is linked to the feelings of aggression and fear.

Amygdala Experiments

Experiments on animals show that removing the Amygdala turns bad tempered creatures into mellow ones.

Amygdala Stimulation

Stimulating the Amygdala of cats causes their fur to raise, backs to arch and pupils to dilate.

Math Anxiety

Math anxiety is related to hyperactivity in the right Amygdala.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

Hippocampus Memory Loss

Humans who lose their hippocampus during surgery or injury lose their ability to form new memories of facts and events.

Hippocampus Aging

The hippocampus decreases in size and function with aging.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Cerebral Cortex Connections

The brain's left and right hemispheres are filled mainly with axons connecting the cortex to the brain's other regions.

Cerebral Cortex Lobes

The Cerebral Cortex that covers each hemisphere is subdivided into four lobes, separated by prominent fissures, or folds.

Frontal Lobes

Located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscle movements, planning, and judgment.

Parietal Lobes

Located at the top of the head and toward the rear; receive sensory input for touch and body position.

Temporal Lobes

Found above the ears; receive auditory information from the ears.

Occipital Lobes

Located at the back of the head; receive information from visual fields.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations; the more sensitive the body region, the larger the somatosensory cortex.

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, and thinking; help recognize faces.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition, including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Parallel Processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve difficult problems.

Sequential Processing

Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

Natural Selection

The idea that inherited traits that enhance an organism's ability to survive and reproduce are most likely to be passed down to successive generations.

Evolution and Mating Preferences

Looking at sex from an evolutionary perspective.

Sexual partner choices

Men and women make different choices when it comes to sexual partners.

Women's partner preferences

Women (heterosexual) are more likely to choose men who can support and protect them throughout a pregnancy.

Men's attraction

Men (heterosexual) are evolutionarily programmed to be attracted to women whose ages are most associated with fertility.

Nature's selection

Nature selects behaviors that increase genetic success.

Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.