Terrorism Exam 3

Terrorist Violence is

-not senseless or irrational, but the consequences of "logical" decisions made by the perpetrators
-Thus, terrorist violence is rarely random
Targets are selected specifically, often as the result of careful deliberation
Even when "targets of opportunity" are attacked, the motivation is not random

Reasons why extremists adopt terrorism

Most terrorist tactics are relatively easy to use
Terrorism produces disproportionate public attention
Terrorist attacks can paint governments as unable to rule or weak
Governments can be provoked into overreaction

Typical Terrorist Objectives

• For most terrorist groups, the minimal objective is increased public recognition of their group and their cause
• Optimal objective is achieving their final communal, revolutionary, or political objective

Common Objectives

Changing the existing order
Psychological disruption to the population
Social disruption to the population
Publicizing the cause
Creating a revolutionary, discordant environment

Changing the existing order

All terrorism seeks to change the existing order in some way
Even if the objective is a short-term change in the disruption of normal routines
-ex. ethnonationalist groups, nihilists, religious groups, and lone wolves

ethnonationalist groups

Seek to win recognition of their own human rights and group autonomy, sometimes at the expense of others

nihilists

Wish to destroy the existing system without regard for what will replace the existing order

religious groups

bring about the divininely inspired new order

lone wolves (often delusional)

assumption that their actions will further a cause against a corrupt or evil social order

psychological disruption

Inflict maximum psychological damage by applying dramatic violence against symbolic targets
Iconic or sacred targets maximize this impact
-including: cultural symbols, political institutions, and public leaders

social disruption

-"Propaganda by deed"
The ability of terrorists and extremists to disrupt the normal routines of society demonstrates both:
The weakness of the government
The strength of the movement
This combination can be very effective propaganda

Publicizing the Cause

-achieve exposure for their cause and grievances

media-oriented

most terrorist violence is

media-oriented terrorism

-terrorism that is purposely carried out to attract attention from the media and general public
- Targets are selected because they are likely to be covered by news outlets
Live coverage of major terrorism is near guaranteed by media networks

Creating a revolutionary environment

-Dissident extremists understand that they cannot achieve their ultimate objectives without raising the revolutionary consciousness of their people
Their best hope is to:
Force the state to overreact
Encourage people to understand the repressive nature of the state
Instigate a mass rebellion

Target audiences

Terrorist groups adapt their methods and selection of targets to the characteristics of their championed group and their environment
-may include: politically apathetic people, government and allied elites, potential supporters, and confirmed supporters

politically apathetic people

Objective is to force an end to indifference
Motivate them to have some interest in fundamental change

government and allied elites

Objective is to intimidate or distract ruling bodies
Face them to deal favorably with the grievances

potential supporters

Use propaganda by deed to inspire revolutionary consciousness'

confirmed supporters

reinforce belief in the movement

ethnonationalist terrorists

-tend to be focused and surgical
-With the exception of extreme examples of communal violence
Win improved conditions or autonomy for championed groups
Civilian casualties are often defined as legitimate targets

Left-wing ideological terrorists:

-tend to be focused and relatively surgical
- Use propaganda to create a revolutionary consciousness
Attract those sympathetic to the championed group to the cause
Most frequently target symbolic targets
Buildings, offices, officials

Right-Wing Ideological Terrorists

-Much less likely to be either focused or surgical in their political objectives
Objectives often quite vague
Constituencies not always clearly defined
Idiosyncratic to specific national environments

redefined morality of New Terrorism opens the door for:

More deadly high-yield weapons
Large populations as targets
Symbolic targets can be hit harder than in the past

Guided by the following objectives

-attracting attention, pleasing god, damaging economies, and influencing enemies

attracting attention

devastating attacks are more difficult to ignore

pleasing god

divinely inspired terrorists seek to fulfil mandates from God

damaging economies

Including through the contamination of food or other consumer products
Disruption to economic sectors

Central objective

-Kill as many as possible
-Examples:
- 1993 and 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center
-1995 bombing in oklahoma city

chemical agents

-chemicals that can be converted into weapons or manufactured by terrorists
Weapons permit indiscriminate targets

Modern Asymmetrical warfare

- Refers to the use of unconventional, unexpected, and nearly unpredictable methods of political violence
Intentionally strike at unanticipated targets and apply unique tactics

Why is Asymmetrical conflict appealing?

-Arose from the perception that the United States and other Western countries have developed an unassailable capacity for conventional warfare
The use of weapons of mass destruction, indiscriminate attacks, and extreme methods is appealing in fighting these countries

Netwar organizational theory

strategy designed to incorporate maximum flexibility into organization and communications design
-Semiautonomous cells are prepositioned around the globe as sleepers
Or travel to locations where an attack is to occur
Communicate using cyber and digital technologies

Modern Adaption of Traditional Organizational Models

Chain Networks, star,hub, and wheel networks

Chain Networks

People, goods, or information move along a line of separated contacts
End-to-end communication travel through intermediate nodes

Star,hub, and wheel networks

A set of actors is tied to a central node or actor and must go through that node to communicate

environments

methods adopted by modern terrorists reflect the idiosyncrasies of their

bombings

-very common method
- Allow extremist movements to inflict maximum physical and psychological damage
While maximizing casualties

Suicide Bombings

- Tactic used by combatants in which an assailant is laden with explosives and detonates the explosives
Purpose of inflicting death or maximum damage
Assailant intentionally dies during the attack
Particularly effective in the maximization of casualties and psychological consequences

Sidearms

Including pistols and rifles
Commonly employed to ambush, assassinate, or otherwise inflict casualties

kidnappings

Employed for a variety of reasons
Sometimes used to extort ransom
Other times used for propaganda purposes

hijackings

Targets may include airliners, sea vessels, trains, or other transportation
Generally conducted for maximum propaganda effect

vehicle attacks

- Vehicular conveyances as mobile weapons
Very common method

Kneecapping

-method used by Irish Republican Army, Irish Protestant Loyalists and some other groups
Technique involves shooting a victim in the back of the knee joint
Shooting off the kneecap of the victim

Weapons of Terrorists

Firearms and explosives are the most common weapons of choice, historically
More recently, there has been a growth in precision-guided munitions and high-technology triggering devices

Precision-guided Munitions

Technologically advanced weapons that can be remotely guided to targets
Otherwise referred to as "smart bombs"

High-range threat potential weapons and tactics

-nuclear weapons, radiological agents, and biological agents

nuclear weapons

High explosive military weapons using weapon-grade plutonium and uranium
Nuclear explosions devastate the area within their blast zone, and:
Irradiate the area outside the blast zone
Send dangerous radioactive debris int the atmosphere, which descends as toxic fallout

Radiological Agents

spread highly toxic radioactive materials by detonating conventional explosives
Materials that emit radiation that can harm living organisms when inhaled or otherwise ingested
Can be used to create "dirty bombs"

Biological Agents

potential ingredient in biological weapons

Medium-range threat potential weapons and tactics

Many terrorist groups have extensive access to military-style weaponry, including an unlimited array of conventional small-arms
Accessed through:
Sympathetic state sponsors
International arms black market

Low-Range threat potential weapons and tactics

Powerful homemade weapons that can be manufactured from commercially available components
Amonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) bombs

Submachine Guns

light automatic weapons that fire pistol ammunition
Mostly used by police and paramilitary services
World War II-era models are still on the market and widely used by terrorist groups

Assault Rifles

automatic military-style weapons that use rifle ammunition
Usually capable of both automatic (repeating) and semiautomatic (single-shot) fire
AK-47: widespread adoption by standing armies, guerrillas, and terrorists
M-16

Rocket-propelled grenades

used extensively by dissident forces throughout the world

precision-guided munitions

weapons that can be guided to their targets using infrared or other tracking technology

common explosives

-a staple of terrorist arsenal
-majority are self-constructed, improvised weapons

mines

military-grade explosives that are buried in the soil or rigged to be detonated as booby traps
Antipersonnel mines—designed to kill people
Antitank mines—designed to destroy enemy vehicles
-Some improvised bombs are constructed from commercially available explosives, like dynamite or TNT

plastic explosives

Malleable explosive compounds commonly used by terrorists

semtex

a high-grade and high-yield plastic explosive popular among terrorist groups

C-4

powerful military-grade plastic explosive

ANFO explosives

-powerful explosive compound made from ingredients easily obtained from fertilizers and gasoline
Generally constructed as car bombs

Timed Switches:

electronically or acid-activated triggers rigged to detonate after the passage of a certain period of time

fuses

timed based on varying length

pressure triggers

detonated with the application of physical pressure (think: mines)

electronic triggers

remotely controlled triggers activated by remote electronic or radio signal

high-technology triggers

rely on varying mechanisms, including motion, heat, or sunlight

gasoline bombs

Most easily manufactured, and most commonly used by dissidents
Nothing more than a gasoline-filled bottle with a flaming rag trigger
Commonly called "Molotov cocktails"

pipe bombs

Easily constructed from common pipes filled with explosives and capped on the ends
Nuts, bolts, screws, nails, and other shrapnel are taped inside to maximize damage

vehicular bombs

Ground vehicles wired with explosives
Can include truck bombs or care bombs

improvised rockets

deployment of self-designed rockets by terrorist groups

barometric bombs

-Bombs that use triggers activated by changes in atmospheric pressure
Altitude meter can be rigged to become a triggering device when a specific change in pressure is detected
Can be weaponized against aircraft

biological agents

living organisms or infective material which are intended to cause disease or death in people, animals, or plants, and which depend on their ability to multiply

anthrax

disease that infects livestock and humans through cuts on the skin, respiratory systems, or infected meat

smallpox

formerly eradicated disease that is highly contagious and deadly in many cases

botulism

form of food poisoning that can be deadly if inhaled or ingested

bubonic plague

highly infectious and fatal bacterium responsible for the Black Death in medieval Europe

chemical agents

chemical substances used for hostile purposes to cause disease or death in human, animals, or plants, and which depend on direct toxicity

phosgene gas

causes the lungs to fill with water, drowning the victim

chlorine gas

destroys the cells that line the respiratory tract

mustard gas

blistering agent that blisters the skin, eyes, and nose, and can severely damage lunch

nerve gases

designed to block nerve messages in the body

radiological agents

-weapons that emit radiation intended to harm living organisms
Radioactive substances may be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin
Could theoretically be used to construct a toxic "dirty bomb"

nuclear weapons are

High-explosive military weapons using weapons-grade plutonium and uranium

"Human weapons" and asymmetrical warfare

• Humans possess an intelligence and flexibility that other weapons cannot match
• Use of people can also inflict increased psychological damage on an enemy
• So long as the reservoir of volunteers is consistent, relatively inexpensive
• Capable of exacting a high human toll from an enemy, while minimizing losses

The Lebanon model and the development of suicide bombing

During the 1970s and 1980s, Lebanon essentially descended into anarchy
Fighting was mostly motivated by religion, among contending paramilitaries drawn from Shi'a, Sunni , and other communities
Lebanon's Hezbollah pioneered the technique of suicide bombing as a method of violence during this time
Credit for bombings was usually taken by Hezbollah splinter groups
Each suicide bomber was intentionally glorified as a martyr
Glorification was an important mechanism in motivating and recruiting future suicide bombers

Carlos Marighella's "Armed Propaganda"

- Believed that armed propaganda is a symbolic process in which targets should be chosen after a period of careful deliberation about the effect an attack will have on the larger audience
Advocated the use of symbolic violence to spread propaganda
Justifies tactics in waging urban guerrilla warfare

disrupt society

-In many terrorist campaigns, the objective is to _________
-To the point where the routines of life cannot be managed
-And government cannot maintain order

Phases of Algeria's Armed Islamic Movement

1. Targeted security forces and civilians
2. Assassinated government officials, party officials, and professionals
3. Kill family members of government officials
4. Target foreign workers and tourists
5. Target women and female family members
6. Employ indiscriminate bomb attacks
7. Escalate campaign of suicide bombings

Embassies and Diplomatic Personnel

Embassies represent the sovereignty and national interests of a nation
Attacks are conceptually the same as direct attacks on the nations they represent

International Symbols

Many countries encourage international investment by private corporations
Interests are targeted to symbolically depict exploitation, imperialism, and other representations of repression

Symbolic Buildings and sites

-often represent the prestige and power of a nation or the identity of a people
Targeting these sites can evoke strong psychological and emotional reactions from the people who revere them
Terrorist groups know the target audience will be impacted

Symbolic People

-Terrorist groups frequently assault individuals whose status gives them symbolic value
Security personnel, political leaders, journalists, business executives

Passenger Carriers

Can provide a large number of victims/hostages who are confined
Readily lend themselves to immediate attention

Cyberterrorism

the use of technology by terrorists to disrupt information systems

Cyberattack

deliberate computer-to-computer attack that disrupts, disables, destroys, or takes over a computer system, or damages/steals information

cyberwarfare

offensive computer assaults that seek to damage or destroy networks and infrastructures

criteria for "success" from a terrorist perspective

Global media and political attention
An impact on a target audience
Gaining concessions from an enemy interest
Disruption to the normal routines of society
Provoked overreaction

Gender-Selective Political Violence

Refers to systematic violence directed at a group because of their gender
• Usually the result of:
• Political conflict
• For men: perception as potential fighters
• For women: response to deviations from traditional power structures

Common Examples of Gender-Selective Political Violence

-Dissident movements specifically targeting the women of an enemy group
• States violently repressing behavior among women