Anthropology Test

ANTHROPOLOGY

• the scientific study of the origin, the behaviour, and the physical, social, and cultural development of humans.

• Anthropologists seek to understand what makes us human by studying human ancestors through archaeological excavation, and by observing living cultures throughout the world.

why do we study anthropology?

So we can get answers to questions like… 

• Are we unique from other animal species?

• Is it important to know our historical past as a species?

• Where is our species headed in the future?

• By studying other cultures do we become more tolerant and accepting?

• By studying other cultures does it lead to feelings of superiority?

physical anthropology

• Wants to know where humans, as a species, come from, how our bodies evolved to their present form, and what makes humans unique.

physical anthropology-Primatology

• The study of anatomy and behaviours in living primates.

Theorists 

• Dian Fossey

• Jane Goodall

• Birute Gauldikas

physical anthropology-Paleoanthropology 

• Is the study of human ancestors based on evidence from the evolutionary past.

Theorists

• Raymond Dart

• Louis Leakey

• Mary Leakey

physical anthropology-Human variation

• Is the evolutionary study of physical difference and similarities of existing human populations.

Theorists

• Charles Darwin

Cultural anthropology

• Wants to study the behaviour and beliefs of cultures. This includes what people do, what people make, what they believe, their rituals, types of food, clothing, how they live, languages they speak.

Cultural anthropology-ethnology

• The study of the origins of cultures of different races and people. 

Theorists

• Franz Boas

• Napoleon Chagnon

• Bronislaw Malinowski

• Margaret Mead

Cultural anthropology- Linguistic anthropology

• The study of human languages and how it affects and expresses culture. 

• Historical linguistics, structural linguistics, sociolinguistics

Theorist 

• Noam Chomsky

• Edward Sapir

cultural anthropology-archaeology

The study of culture through the excavation of physical remains from the past. 

Can be considered cultural anthropology of the past

RESEARCH TOOLS- INFORMANT

• A reliable knowledgeable person who provides specific information to an anthropologist studying his or her community. 

Finding an informant can be difficult. There must be a level of trust and willingness to share critical information for research purposes

RESEARCH TOOLS- INTERVIEWS

• Interviews are important tools used by anthropologists (and other social scientists) to understand the culture they are studying, and obtain valuable information. 

• There are different kinds of interviews each with its own advantages and disadvantages. 

• Before interviewing, it is important to inform the subject about the purpose of the research how will the information be used.

 

• This is call informed consent. And it is critical to obtaining information ethically. 

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

• Researcher prepares some guiding questions but allows flexibility.
  

• Both the interviewer and informant can explore new ideas during the discussion.

• Good balance between structure and freedom, allows personal expression while staying on topic.

• Often used when time is limited (e.g., short field visits).
  

• Limitation: interviewer might get off-topic or miss some data if not focused.

STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

• Researcher uses a set list of fixed questions asked in the same way each time.
  

• Produces consistent, comparable data across different participants.
  

• Can be conducted by trained assistants (doesn’t always require an anthropologist).
  

• Best for clear, factual information when little flexibility is needed.
  

Limitation: answers may be short or limited since questions can’t be changed or explained in depth.

COUNTING, PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPPING

• Anthropologists also collect quantitative and visual data.

• They count people, map physical spaces, and take photos to study how communities use space and organize daily life.

• Helps verify what people say by comparing it to what they do.
  

• Anthropologist Richard Lee’s research on the Ju/’hoansi showed how people divided labor and used time daily.

Culture

the total system of ideas, values, beliefs, behaviours and attitudes of a society commonly shared by most members of a society.

It includes all the behaviours people do in their everyday life which is passed from one generation to the next.

Cultural Anthropology

Anthropologists who study both past and present cultures.  

• When studying past cultures they may rely on the work of archaeologists

• When studying present cultures they may place themselves in a culture for months or years collecting interviews, taking notes and participating in their society.

Ethnology

he study of the origins and cultures of different races and people.

• Topics include marriage customs, kinship patterns, political and economic systems, religion, art, music, and technology.

Bronislaw Malinowski

Believed that anthropologists needed to submerge themselves in the culture they were studying.

Studied the Trobriand Islanders in the South Pacific.

Focused on the “Kula Ring” tradition which led to theories of reciprocity and how these exchanges maintained peaceful relationships.

Participant Observation

The careful watching of a group, in some cases living with its members and participating in their culture. 

Issues with Participant Observation

Is a subjective study: Relies on the researcher's point of view which could be culturally biased.

Needs to be objective: Using objective data (mapping, counting and semi structured interviews) would help make it reliable.

Use reflexivity: Reflect  on one’s own worldview, biases, and the impact it has on their conclusions.

Avoid Ethnocentricism:  Judging another culture by the values and standards of one’s own culture.

Cultural Relativism

Theory by Franz Boas

It is the idea that an anthropologists cannot compare two cultures because each culture has its own internal rule that must be accepted. 

We see other cultures through the lens, or bias, of our own culture.

Ethnocentrism

• The belief that one’s own culture is superior to all others; judging other cultures based on our own beliefs and values

                  

Human variation

• Genetic differences between people and populations. 

• Anthropologists study these differences to understand how humans adapted over time.

• Variation appears in skin colour, hair, blood type, height, body shape, tolerance to heat/cold, etc.

• Variation is NOT the same as race.

Charles Darwin’s 3 Principles of Natural Selection:

Variation: Every species contains differences.

Heritability: Genetic traits are passed on.

Environmental Fitness: Individuals best adapted to the environment survive & reproduce.

Why Variation Matters

If all individuals are identical & the environment changes, the species may die out. Variation keeps populations resilient. 

Race: A Social Construct (Not Biological!)

The American Anthropological Association states race is not a biological category.

More genetic variation within racial groups than between them. 

Race is a social idea, shaped historically by society.

Race has no genetic boundaries.

Humans are 99.9% genetically identical.

Anthropologists study specific traits, not races. 

• Blood type distribution
  

• Skin colour
  

• Lactose tolerance

• Sickle cell trait

Why Humans Have Different Skin Colours

• Because of how our ancestors adapted to sunlight in different regions over thousands of years.

Skin colour is not race!

Skin colour does not predict intelligence, ability, or culture

It’s only an adaptation to the environment

Groups that look different are still genetically 99.9% the same

Jane Goodall

Interested in animals at an early age (eg. reading Tarzan).

Met the famed paleoanthropologist, Louis Leakey, at age 23.

Leakey took Goodall on as an assistant and asked her to spearhead a study on

chimps in Gombe, Tanzania in 1960.

Attained a PhD at Cambridge University in Ethology.

Discovered that chimps eat meat, use and make tools, and are capable of

cooperation, altruism, sorrow, joy, and cruelty.

Made most of her discoveries through observing chimps in Gombe at the Gombe

Stream Research Centre.

Prior to her discoveries, it was thought that chimps were vegetarian and not

intelligent enough to construct tools or work together.

Dian Fossey

Alienated by her parents.

Turned to animals for love and acceptance as a child.

Began tending to livestock when she lived on a farm.

1963: went on trip to Africa.

met Louis Leakey and took an interest in mountain gorillas.

1967: Leakey hired her and she headed to Rwanda to study gorillas.

Attained a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy.

Earned a PhD at Cambridge University.

Often imitated gorillas to get close to them.

Identified gorillas by their nose prints when studying them.

Was able to conduct many studies on gorillas through the Karisoke Research Centre.

Discovered that gorillas are “dignified, highly social creatures with individual

personalities and strong family relationships.”

Began her career as an occupational therapist.

Founded the Karisoke Research Centre.

Set up The Digit Fund after her favourite gorilla was killed by poachers.

Raised money for active conservation programs for gorillas.

Birute Galdikas

Observed animals as a child.

Was curious about human evolution and the great apes.

Was working on a masters in anthropology when she met Louis Leakey.

Convinced Leakey to allow her to spearhead a study on orangutans in Indonesian

Borneo.

Studied anthropology.

Discovered that female orangutans only have offspring once every 8 years and the

babies stay with their mothers for the first 8 years.

Helped researchers understand the birth cycles of orangutans and why orangutans

are at risk of extinction.

Discovered that orangutans sleep in tree nests and eat over 400 different kinds of food.

Has conducted one of the longest studies of a contingent wild animal population.

Has made over 100, 000 hours of orangutan observations with colleagues.

Established the concept that non-human animals can have culture too.

Believed that certain behaviours were passed down from generation to generation

through observation and imitation.

What do all three woman have in common?

Showed us that humans are not as unique as once thought.

Helped us realize that our primate relatives are complex and capable of human

communication, emotions, and behaviours.

All three were very determined and never gave up.

They helped pave the way for new generations of female biologists and

conservationists.

Linguistic anthropology

the study of human languages and how language affects and expresses culture.

Historical linguistics

The study of similarities and differences of language structures to understand how languages are related and how people migrated in the past.

This is important for cultures with no written language. Not every cultural group records their language.

Etymology

the study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history.

Structural linguistics

the study of how sounds are put together to make meaning.

• Key Theorist- Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky

Theory of Universal Grammar.

• Believed that all human children are born with

internal, universal rules for grammar and that

they apply these rules as they learn their

mother tongue.

Dialects

We tend to judge people if they use proper grammar

• If two people are speaking the same dialect and understand each other they are using linguistically good grammar

Sociolinguistics

the study of how people use language within their culture to express status and context in social situations.

– Using different language with your friends vs a job interview.

How people address each other reflects the

nature of the relationship

Body language is also a component of study

Jobs

Many international corporations will now hire

linguistic anthropologists to help their

employees be aware of cultural differences.

Why Study Human Origins?

• To understand where humans came from 

• To  learn how biological and cultural changes shaped our species.

•  to examine evidence from fossils tools, and environmental changes

•  to connect modern humans to the evolutionary timeline

Paleoanthropology?

the “bones and stones” branch of physical anthropology.

It involves studying:

• Fossils (skeletal remains, impressions, preserved biological matter)

• Ancient tools

• Animal bones

• Plant remains
  

These remains belong to hominins: modern humans and our human-like ancestors.

Fossil

• preserved remains of biological matter

Hominin

• a human or human ancestor

Radiometric dating

• method that uses radioactive materials to determine age

Bipedalism

• the trait of walking habitually on two legs

What Anthropologists Learn From Fossils

• Age at death

• Brain size

• Sex

• Walking patterns (upright or quadrupedal)

• Height and weight

• Ability to climb
  
  

Development of speech structures (e.g., hyoid bone in Selam)

Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis)

Discovered: 1974, by Donald Johanson

Age: 3.2 million years old

40% complete skeleton

Showed clear evidence of upright walking

Brain size: 380 cm³ (similar to a chimpanzee)

Adult female (based on teeth & pelvis)

Selam (A. afarensis juvenile)

Discovered: 2000, Ethiopia

Most complete juvenile fossil ever found

Walked upright but still had climbing adaptations

Earliest evidence of hyoid bone → clues to speech development

The African Origins of Humanity

Charles Darwin (1871)

• Proposed humans evolved in Africa. 

Raymond Dart (1924) 

• Identified Australopithecus africanus (Taung Child) 

• First to provide scientific evidence of african origin 

The Leakey Family 

• Louis & Mary Leakey discovered “dear boy” 

• Proved early humans lived in africa 

• Discovered Homo Habilis 

• Richard Leakey Found Turkana Boy (Homo Erectus) 

Bipedalism: A Key Human Trait 

• S-shaped spine

• Wide, flat pelvis

• Slanted thigh bone

• Double-arched foot

• Big toe aligned with heel
  

These traits: fossil belongs to a hominin.

Laetoli Footprints (3.6 mya)

Discovered by Mary Leakey (1976)
Proved that:

• Early hominins walked upright

• Footprints had heel strike, arch, and aligned big toe Bipedalism existed before large brain development.

Ardipithecus ramidus (“Ardi”)

Discovered: 1994

Lived 4.4 mya: pushes bipedalism further back in time

Walked upright but still had opposable big toes

Not a knuckle-walker

Suggests early ancestors lived partly in trees

Neanderthals 

Lived 150,000 years ago 

Strong, muscular, cold-adapted bodies

Larger brains than modern humans (1450 cm³)

Heavy brow ridges, large teeth

Used complex tools

Lived in caves

Possible burial rituals (Shanidar Cave)
Modern findings: DNA evidence shows humans and Neanderthals Interbred 

What do ancient tools reveal?

When Hominins lived, what they ate, how they behaved and their technological skills 

Acheulian 1.5 mya -200,000 ya

Oldowan 2.5-2 mya

Mousterian 200.00 -35,000 ya 

Carolus Linnaeus 

• (1707–1778) was a Swedish botanist who created the first widely used scientific system for classifying living things. His work is the foundation of modern taxonomy.

Hierarchical Classification

Linnaeus organized life into a hierarchy, meaning levels that go from very broad to very specific.

Binomial Nomenclature (Two-Name System)

Linnaeus created the system where every species gets a two-part Latin name:

The first word = Genus (capitalized)

The second word = species (lowercase)

Classification Based on Physical Characteristics

Before genetics existed, Linnaeus grouped organisms by:

Body structure, Shape, Size, How they develop, Observable characteristics

These were called morphological features, meaning things you can see.

 Fixed Species Concept 

• Linnaeus originally believed species were unchanging and that each organism was created exactly as it is.

• He didn’t believe in evolution at the time.

• However, he did notice that some species could vary and eventually questioned whether species might change over time.

Charles Darwin 

• British naturalist and scientist

• Began his famous voyage in 1831 on the HMS Beagle

• Traveled to South America, Australia, and Pacific Islands, including the Galápagos Islands

• During his travels, Darwin found evidence of a changing earth and unique species on every Island. 

  • Darwin found seashells high in the Andes Mountains, proving that the mountains had once been underwater.

  • This suggested that Earth changes slowly over long periods of time.

Darwin’s observations

On the Galápagos Islands (off the coast of Ecuador), Darwin noticed that animals were similar but not identical to those on the mainland.

Animals on different islands also showed variations, even within the same species.

Species produced more offspring than could survive.

There were natural variations in size, color, shape, and strength.

Climate and environmental differences created survival challenges.

Some individuals had traits that helped them survive → these traits were passed on.

Theory of natural Selection

Species change over time because only the best-adapted individuals survive.

• Species were forced to evolve or they would face extinction when circumstances required it. 

• The species that were able to evolve and adapt survived.

• Over centuries of adaptation, species passed on these several characteristics.

•  “Survival of the fittest” 

Gregor Mendel: Father of Genetics

• An Austrian biologist and monk.

• Studied pea plants with different colors, shapes, and sizes.

• Mendel discovered how traits are inherited, which later helped prove how evolution works.

Genetics

the study of heredity (how traits are passed from parents to offspring) and biological variations.

Mendel’s Findings

• Traits Do NOT Blend

• People used to think traits “mixed” like paint (e.g., red & white = pink).

• Mendel proved this is wrong.

• Instead, traits stay separate and can reappear later.

• Genes Come in Pairs

  • Each parent gives one gene for each trait.

  • These pairs determine what the offspring looks like.

  Dominant and Recessive Traits

  • Dominant trait: the one you see (it “wins”).

  • Recessive trait:  hidden unless two recessive genes are present

Cyborg Anthropology

Examine the ways in which humans and technology interact and evolve together.

How technology affects/changes culture

Cyborgs

an organism to which components produced from outside the organism has been

added for the purpose of adapting to new environment.

• In a broad sense, it refers to a being whose physiological functions are aided or enhanced by artificial means, such as implants, prosthetics, or other technologies that extend or restore abilities.

Rites of passage

A ceremony, ritual or event that marks a change in life or status. 

• Getting your period 

• Getting your driver's license 

• First kiss or date 

• Marriage 

Rites of passage: Segregation

1. Segregation

The person is separated from the rest of society and from their original status.

▪Includes geographic changes

▪Changes in physical appearance (e.g., special clothes, body paints, tattoos, etc)

Rites of passage: Transition (Liminal Stage)

▪The person is becoming his/her new self and learning the new role 

▪Guidance from a mentor / spiritual world

Rites of passage: Reintegration

▪Goes back to his/her society in NEW role

▪Sometimes the person is marked by tattoos, scars, or new clothing

▪Sometimes you need to give up something to symbolically indicate that one role has ended and another has begun

▪Expected to assume new roles.

Why are rites of passage important? 

◼ 1. For individuals going through changes in life, it relieves stress and helps them understand growth.

◼ 2. Communities remain stable and unified because the inevitable life changes are given a pattern

◼ 3. It helps people to anticipate consequences

◼ 4. There is an entertainment value attached to rites of passage.

◼ 5. It is beneficial to the culture because these rites of passage pass on the traditions and religious or moral values that the society believes are vital for stability and communication.

marriage

a socially recognized union that establishes rights and obligations between those people, their children or their in laws.

Social Function: Creates alliances between groups and defines lineage.

Economic Role: Often involves transfer of wealth (dowry or bridewealth).

Legitimacy: Defines the social status of children born to the union.

monogamy

Marriage between 2 partners. “serial monogamy” is common in western societies, where individuals may have multiple spouses over a lifetime, but only one at a time

polygyny

a form of polygamy where one man has several wives. it is the most common type of polygamy globally, often associated with status, agricultural labour, and lineage size.

polyandry

A rare form of polygamy where one women has several husbands. Fraternal polyandry (brothers sharing a wife) occurs in parts of Tibet and Nepal to avoid dividing family land.

Pros of arranged marriage

• traditions, culture and ethnicity continue to be passed on. 

• no stress to find a partner

• financial stability 

• family support  

• grow to love them and character development 

Cons of arranged marriage

• NO say in who you would like to marry

• resentment between family 

• potential lack of attraction 

• use children for financial growth 

• power imbalance in the relationship 

• pressure and expectations 

• risk of unhappiness 

Arranged marriage

a union organized by family, often based on shared values, status, and astrological compatibility. consent is typically sought, and the couple may have a say

Forced marriage

One or both parties are married without their free consent. This is a human rights violation. It is crucial to distinguish between cultural tradition and coercion.

Walking Marriage (Tisese)

men visit women at night but return to their own mother's home by morning. Children are raised by the mother's family. Biological fathers have no legal obligation to raise the child, though they may provide gifts. The uncle often plays the father figure role.

Child marriage

any formal or informal union where one or both parties are under the age of 18.

Prevalence: It affects girls disproportionately. Each year, 12 million girls are married before the age of 18.

Drivers: Poverty, gender inequality, and lack of education are primary drivers. In some contexts, it is seen as a way to secure a daughter's future financially.

Costs of early marriage

end of education: married girls are often forced to drop out of school, limiting their economic opportunities

health risks: early pregnancy is often a leading cause of death in girls aged 15-19. their bodies are often not ready for childbirth

cycle of poverty: lack of education and health issues trap families in poverty for generations