exam 2

fate of glucose in the liver is used for what

energy stored as liver glycogen

what are the 3 water-soluble substances

monosaccharides, amino acids from proteins, and water-soluble products of fat digestion

villi

absorption site of monosaccharides

how do carbs leave the cell

via the hepatic portal circulation

venules

water-soluble substances absorbed into the capillaries of the villi move into what

blood glucose levels rise

when glucose enters the bloodstream

glycemic response

rate, magnitude, and duration of the rise in blood glucose after a meal

lower glycemic response occurs with the consumption of what

fiber containing foods and/or a meal that provides CHO, protein, and fat

emptying of the stomach and digestion/absorption are delayed

why does lower glycemic response occur

greater glycemic response occurs when

refined CHO and/or simple CHOs are consumed alone

why does greater glycemic response happen

CHO leave the stomach quicker and are subsequently absorbed faster

what is the main function of CHO

provide energy

lactose intolerance

inability to completely digest lactose due to a reduction in the levels of lactate in the small intestine

small intestine

where does CHO digestion resume

bicarbonate

component of pancreatic juice

cells that require glucose

brain cells, nerve cells, and red blood cells

blood glucose is regulated by what

liver and two pancreatic hormones

what are the two pancreatic hormones that regulate blood glucose

insulin and glucagon

when is insulin secreted

when blood glucose levels rise after eating

insulin allows what to enter the cells

glucose

once insulin enters the cells, it can be converted to what

liver and muscle glycogen

what does insulin promote

fat synthesis in fat-storing cells and stimulates the making of proteins

when do blood glucose levels go down

after glucose enters the cells

when is glucagon secreted

When blood glucose levels are low

what does glucagon done

raises blood glucose levels

how does glucagon raise blood glucose levels

stimulating breakdown of liver glycogen and the synthesis of glucose

what is glycolysis

anaerobic pathway that splits 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvate

cytosol

Where does glycolysis occur?

what if cells are in need of glucose

pyruvate can be converted back to glucose

fermentation of pyruvate and production of lactic acid

what happens to the pyruvate is there is no oxygen present

2 pyruvate are converted into 2 Acetyl CoA

what happens to pyruvate if there is oxygen present

where in the cell does aerobic metabolism occur

mitochondria

What is the net gain of ATP in glycolysis?

2 ATP

after the energy from the high energy electrons is transferred to the chemical bonds of atp, the remaining electrons combine with oxygen and hydrogen to form

water

electron transport chain

where is the majority of ATP made

salivary amylase

an increase in acidity decreases what

hydrochloric acid

is a component of gastric juice

shorter polysaccharides

salivary amylase breaks starch down into what

short chain fatty acids

what helps to inhibit the growth of unwanted bacteria

short chain fatty acids

provide energy for the cells of the colon and other tissue of the body

inflammation of the bowel

healthy bacteria and energy are possible protective effect against colon cancer and prevent/treat diarrhea that is caused by what

transit time through the large intestine

adding of water & bulk to fecal matter increases the speed of what

absorption rate of nutrients such as glucose

is slower in the small intestine, preventing spikes in blood sugar

Roles & benefits of indigestible carbohydrates in the body

absorption rate of nutrients such as glucose, transit time through the large intestine, added water and bulk fecal matter stimulate peristalsis, helps to prevent constipation, and short chain fatty acids

indigestible carbohydrates

carbs that cannot be digested by the human digestive enzymes

types of indigestible carbohydrates

fiber, oligosaccharies, and resistant start

resistant starch is naturally present in what

legumes, whole grains, nuts, and unripe bananas

resistant starches form as the cooked starches cool in what

potatoes, rice, and pasta

flow of digestion

mouth, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

fortification

the addition of nutrients to foods

authorized health claims regarding whole grains and the risk of

heart disease and certain cancers

examples of refined grain products

bread products, rice, pasta, macaroni, cereal products, and corn meal

legislation requires the fortification of grains with some of the nutrients that were removed during the processing of

some b vitamins such as thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid and iron

what is removed with the refining of a kernel

most of the bran and germ

what is the result of most of the bran and germ being refined from a kernel

majority of the fiber, vitamins, minerals, healthy fats, antioxidants, and phytochemicals are removed as well

where is germ located

at the base of the kernel

nutrients germ offers

sources of oil (healthy fats) and some b vitamins and antioxidants

endosperm is the bulk of what

edible portion

endosperm is

starchy, soft in texture, and whitish in color

what nutrients do endosperm contain

cho and protein; some of the b vitamins and minerals

what is bran

layer surrounding the kernel

nutrients bran has to offer

most of the fiber, antioxidants, b vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals

3 components of a whole grain

germ, bran, and endosperm

what is the husk of whole grain

dry, outermost part that is not edible for humans

what is a whole grain

grain milled in its entirety, excluding the husk, containing the bran, endosperm, and germ

recommendations for the consumption of higher quality chos

selecting more unrefined, nutrient dense cho sources

limit intakes of foods high in what

refined cho or added sugars

what are empty calories

referring to foods that provide calories but few nutrients, most often foods high in added sugars, saturated fats, and/or alcohol

what are added sugars

refined sugars and syrups that have been added to foods during processing or preparation

refined foods

foods that have undergone processing that changes or removes various components of the original food

examples processing of refined food include

grinding, cooking, extruding, and drying

what are unrefined foods

foods eaten either just as it is found in nature or with only minimal processing

before the body begins to breakdown of proteins, what are two possible sources of glucose

breakdown of liver glycogen and conversion of pyruvate back to glucose in the cytosol of the cell

what can supply the 3-carbon molecules to make glucose

certain amino acids from the dismantlement of proteins

Can acetyl CoA be used to make glucose?

no

are proteins stored in the body

no

where does the body get amino acids from

body proteins such as muscle proteins, enzymes are diverted from their rules and broken down

how can protein be spared

making sure diet is adequate in CHO, i.e., 45-65% of total calories

fat

main storage form of energy in the body

some carbohydrates are needed for the breakdown of what

fats

fatty acids and glycerol

fat molecules are broken down into

no

can fatty acids be used to make glucose

fate of glycerol once inside the cell

used to make a small amount of ATP or can be used to make glucose

can acetyl coa enter the citric acid cycle

no

what are ketones

acidic molecules formed when there aren't enough cho's available to break down acetyl coa

some ketones serve as a source of what

energy for the heart, muscles, and kidneys

after 3 days of fasting, the brain cells do what

obtain half of its energy from ketones and the other half of brain cells still require glucose

ketones not used for energy are

excreted in urine

ketones as a source of energy can help to do what

spare glucose which in turn spares protein from being used to make energy when cho is limited

is ketone production is high, what happens

there is a buildup of ketones in the blood

what is ketosis

high level of ketones in the blood

when does mild ketosis occur

with fasting and consuming a low-cho weight loss diet

when does severe ketosis occur

on-goin cho deficit and untreated diabetes

glucose circulating in the bloodstream serves as

source of energy for any cells in need

where is glycogen stored

liver and muscles

amount of glycogen stored is what

fixed

where will some glucose be linked together to form glycogen

in the liver

what is the consequence of having extra glucose

more fat will be circulating in the blood

some of the circulating fat in the blood can be taken up by what

fatty tissue where it is stored

fat cells

what can also take up circulating glucose and convert it to fat