Unit 0

Flashcards of key vocabulary and terms from the lecture notes.

Psychological perspectives

Broad schools of thought in psychology that offer different approaches to understanding behavior and mental processes.

Psychodynamic

Perspective emphasizing unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

Behavioral

Perspective focused on observable behaviors and how they're learned.

Humanistic

Perspective emphasizing human growth and self-fulfillment.

Cognitive

Perspective focusing on mental processes like thinking and memory.

Biological

Perspective focusing on the brain, nervous system, and genetics.

Evolutionary

Perspective emphasizing survival, adaptation, and natural selection.

Cross-Cultural

Perspective comparing behavior across different cultures.

Biopsychosocial

Integrative approach combining biological, psychological, and social factors.

Cultural norms

Rules for accepted and expected behavior in a society.

Cognitive biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for information that confirms preconceptions.

Hindsight bias

Tendency to believe, after an event, that you knew it all along.

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more confident than correct.

Experimental methodology

A research method where variables are manipulated to observe effects.

Independent variables

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Confounding variables

Uncontrolled factors that could influence the outcome of an experiment.

Dependent variables

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance.

Non-experimental methodology

Research methods that do not involve manipulating variables.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or group.

Correlational studies

Research examining the relationship between variables without manipulating them.

Meta-analysis

Combining results from multiple studies to find general trends.

Naturalistic observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable (as it pertains to hypotheses)

A hypothesis must be able to be proven wrong through evidence.

Operational definitions

Clear definitions of variables in terms of how they are measured.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if results are consistent.

Sample

A subset of a population used in research.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to study.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population's characteristics.

Random sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience sampling

Selecting participants who are easy to reach.

Sampling bias

When a sample does not accurately represent the population.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings apply to the broader population.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment in an experiment.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment.

Placebo

A fake treatment given to control groups to mimic the experimental condition.

Placebo effect

Improvement resulting from the belief in treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Single-blind study

Participants don't know if they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind study

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

Experimenter bias

When a researcher's expectations influence the outcome.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to answer in a way that is viewed favorably by others.

Self-report bias

Inaccuracy in surveys due to how participants describe themselves.

Qualitative research/measures

Non-numerical data often describing qualities or themes.

Structured interviews

Pre-planned, standardized set of questions for all participants.

Quantitative research/measures

Research that gathers numerical data.

Likert scales

A scale used to measure attitudes or opinions, usually with 5 or 7 points.

Representation of participants

How well the participants reflect the characteristics of the population.

Peer review

Process by which scientific research is evaluated by other experts before publication.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results.

Directionality problem (in correlation)

In correlation, it’s unclear whether A causes B or B causes A.

Third variable problem (in correlation)

A third factor may influence both variables being studied.

Wording bias

When the way a question is phrased influences responses.

Institutional review

Oversight body ensuring ethical treatment of research participants.

Informed consent

Participants must be told about a study and agree to participate.

Informed assent

For minors, they must agree to participate along with parent consent.

Protection from harm

Participants must not be exposed to unnecessary risk.

Confidentiality

Participants’ private information must be protected.

Deception

Misleading participants is sometimes allowed, but must be justified.

Confederates

Actors working with the researcher to influence participants.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of the study after it ends.

Central tendency

A measure that represents the center of a data set.

Variation

How much scores differ from each other.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores below a specific score.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of scores.

Median

The middle score in a set when ordered from lowest to highest.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve representing data distribution.

Positive skew

When a distribution has a long tail on the right.

Negative skew

When a distribution has a long tail on the left.

Bimodal distribution

A distribution with two modes or peaks.

Standard deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

Regression toward the mean

Tendency for extreme scores to fall closer to average on retesting.

Scatterplot

A graph with points that show the relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

As one variable increases, the other also increases.

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Effect sizes

A measure of the strength of the relationship between variables.

Statistical significance

The likelihood that a result is not due to chance.