Criminal justice study guide exam 2

English Heritage

After the Norman Conquest of 1066 a community model of lawenforcement was established called the "frankpledge" or watch system

What is a unit of 10 families in a village in England called?

Tything

What is the role of a 'tythingman' in the frankpledge system?

Responsible for apprehending criminals

What age must a man be to be appointed as a 'tythingman'?

12 years or older

What reward was given to citizens for reporting crimes to the 'tythingman'?

A small sum of money

What is the term for the call for assistance in apprehending a criminal in the tything system?

Hue and cry

How many tythings are grouped to form a parish?

Ten tythings

Who was the supervisor of each shire?

The shire reeve or 'Sheriff'

Who appointed the shire reeve?

The king

What office was created that involved the shire reeve and constable?

The office of the justice of the peace

night watch

Reported fires, raised the "hue and cry", maintained street lamps,arrested or detained suspicious persons, and walked rounds

Sir Robert Peel:

Known as the "father" of modern policing

- Created the London Metropolitan Police in 1829

• Crime prevention

• Preventative patrol

• Military structure

- Uniform, rank/structure, authoritarian command style

The political Era

Initially, citizens of the United States were very reluctant to official state sponsored police forces—Why?• First modern police forces were established in the 1840s modeled after the London Metropolitan Police, but not the exact same- New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Cincinnati• Did not wear uniforms, but had a hat and a badge• Did not carry firearms• Officers were selected on based on political affiliation• Recruits received no formal training. No job security and could be fired at will• Job as a police officer was a form of patronage, that local politicians used to reward their friends• Police officers were basically political operatives• Police walked very large "beats" that could be miles• The role of the police was much more broad compared to today, and they had much more of a social service function• Lack of supervision and communication- Call boxes weren't introduced until the late 1800s• One of the major themes of policing in the 1800s is large scale corruption

Who is known as the Father of Police Professionalism?

August Vollmer

What significant report did August Vollmer author in 1931?

Wickersham Commission Report on Police

What issue did the Wickersham Commission Report identify related to political influence?

Excessive political influence

What did the Wickersham Commission Report highlight about police leadership?

Inadequate leadership and management

What problem did the Wickersham Commission Report find regarding police recruitment?

Ineffective recruitment and training

What technological issue was noted in the Wickersham Commission Report?

Insufficient use of technology

What type of police abuse was highlighted in the Wickersham Commission Report?

Widespread police abuse; including coercing confessions

Reform agenda of the professionalization movement

Define policing as a profession

- Eliminate political influence from policing

- Appoint qualified executives

- Raise personnel standards

Police role was clarified and shifted from order maintenance/peacekeepingto strictly law enforcement

Professionalization?

Seen as experts in their field of fighting crime

- Autonomous from external influences, such as political parties

- Increased efficiency

professionalization/ reform era 1920 -1970

By the 1930s, the reform themes—centralization, standardization ofbehavior through the development of policies and procedures, moreeducation and training, selection and promotion based on merit,commitment to the goal of fighting crime, and use of the latest advances inscience and technology—were well established"

Patrol car:

Widespread use across the country by the 1920s• Made patrol efficient and effective

Two-way radio:

Dispatch officers in response to calls for service• Constant supervision

Telephone:

Citizens could call the police with ease, and they did

police crisis

Professionalization also created problems

• The 1960s police crisis:

- Rise in crime

:• The Crime rate doubled and the police gave the public a false expectation that the police hadcreated

- Civil Rights movement

:• Equality for Blacks and the police became the symbol of a society that denied Blacksequal justice

- Anti-war sentiment

- Riots:

• The Kerner Commission concluded that most urban riots in the late 1960s wereinitiated by poor or aggressive police action, generally taken in minority communities

• The police experienced a direct assault on their legitimacy by two groups that had previously been socially and politically separated: Blacks and middle-class white youth

Era of community policing

Police departments start experimenting with new models ofpolicing, COP and POP, that emphasize

:- More proactive approaches

- Improving community relations

- Getting the community involved in crime

-fighting/prevention

- Crime prevention through patrol

- Utilizing advancements in technology

today's era

Era of Community Policing ended in 2001

- War on Terror or Era of Homeland Security (2001 - 2014)

- Police crisis 2.0 began in 2014 with Ferguson and continuestoday

Size and costs

Municipal Police Department:- City based police department; also known as local police- 70% of all police departments and employ 60% of officers• Responsible for controlling crime, maintaining orderinvestigating crimes, controlling traffic, and providingsupport in emergency medical situations• Average starting salary is $44,000• 15% require officers to have "some college"

Street- level bureaucrats:

Apply policy and law enacted by legislature out on the street

Guardian mindset:

Prioritizes community engagement, de-escalation, andprotecting citizens' civil rights• View themselves as law enforcers and peacekeepers, andare more likely to cultivate public trust and support

Warrior mindset:

Emphasizes the use of force and a military approach tolaw enforcement• Officers with a warrior mindset are more likely to beviewed by citizens as overly aggressive andunsympathetic to their needs

Danger in policing

60 police officers feloniously killed in 2023

• Although, always present, policing isn't an overall dangerous occupation:

- The chances of a police officer being killed are around 1 in 15,000• .0067%

- Fisherman and loggers are 10 times more likely to be killed- Garbage collectors are 3 times more likely

- Farmers 2 times more likely•

"...police work has become much safer in the past several decades and isfar safer than it was in the 1920s and 1930s."• -The biggest consequence of policing being perceived as dangerous is thatit affects the way officers deal with the public

function of patrol- to deter crime

Create an impression of police omnipresence

- Eliminate opportunities to commit crime

function of patrol- To Maintain Order and Public Safety:

Assure public that they are being protected- Improve police-community relations

function of patrol- To Make Officers Available for Service:

Have officers dispersed throughout many communities

- Improve capacity to respond to calls quickly

Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment:

First experiment testing the effectiveness of patrolthat met minimum scientific standards

outcome of the Kansas city preventive patrol experiment

Variations in the level of patrol had no significant impacton crime

- No significant impact on fear of crime

- Citizens did not change or alter behavior

- Did not influence attitudes towards the police

• More patrol did not reduce crime, and lower levelsof patrol did not lead to an increase in crime

Newark Foot Patrol Experiment:

4 neighborhoods kept normal patrol levels (control)

- 4 neighborhoods eliminated patrol

- 4 neighborhoods added more patrol

network foot patrol experiment outcome

- No significant effect on crime rates

- Significantly improved public perceptions of police

• Reduces the fear of crime

- Felt safer- Felt less likely to be victimized

• Increased satisfaction with the police

detectives

Work is exciting and dangerous- Detectives are heroic, courageous, and skillful- A good detective can solve any crime with enoughdedicated work- If we only had more detectives, with lower caseloads, andmore resources, they could clear more cases• These myths are harmful because they lead tounrealistic expectations that the police cannot live upto

Clearance rates

When the police identify the offender in a crime, and makean arrest• Only 20% of reported index crimes are cleared- The "actually" clearance rate is much lower

sociability factors

Case structural factors- Organizational Factors- Environmental factors

csi effect

popular television programs suggest that scientific methods are infallible in solving crimes

Broken window theory

If disorder leads to crime, then eliminating disorder shouldeliminate crime- Disrupting the downward spiral• The community- Must alert police to early signs of disorder and take care of itthemselves when possible• The police- must support the community's efforts by taking residents'complaints seriously and addressing them when need through strictlaw enforcement• If both the police and the community show that disorder willnot be tolerated and that they are willing to do somethingabout it, criminals cannot take over

community policing

A model of policing that stresses a two-way working relationship between the community and the police to identify, prioritize, and solve crime problems andimprove the quality of life• Involves a number of philosophical, organization, strategic, and tactical changes to a police department• The police become more integrated into the local community• Citizens assume an active role in crime control and prevention

What is the outcome of community policing regarding crime reduction?

Empirical studies have often failed to find a significant, positive effect of community policing on crime reduction.

What is the outcome of community policing regarding the fear of crime?

The outcome is mixed, but leans in a more favorable direction.

How does community policing affect satisfaction with police?

Community policing shows an impressive capacity to improve police-community relations.

What evidence exists regarding citizen satisfaction with police due to community policing?

There is robust evidence that community policing increases citizen satisfaction with the police.

What do several studies reveal about community policing interventions?

They are effective in enhancing the attitudes of citizens toward law enforcement.

satisfaction with the police

Studies conducted since the 1960s

- Attitudes have been remarkably stable over time

- Confidence, trust, perceptions, legitimacy...

- The public has more confidence in the police than almost all other institutions

Age

Fairly consistent findings that indicate younger peopleexpress more negative attitudes towards the police and theelderly express more positive attitudes

Gender

The research is inconclusive

- The majority of research suggests gender does not have asignificant influence

Socioeconomic:

Lower class individuals tend to hold more negative attitudestowards the police compared to wealthy individuals

Contact with the Police:

Does a positive or negative experience have a strongerinfluence on people?

- The impact of having a bad experience is four to fourteentimes as great as a positive experience

What is the first step in the police hiring process?

Verify personal information

What is done to check a candidate's identity in the police hiring process?

Fingerprint

What type of record is checked for criminal history during the police hiring process?

Check for criminal record

What record is reviewed to assess a candidate's driving history in the police hiring process?

Review driving record

What record is reviewed if applicable during the police hiring process?

Review military record

What type of references are interviewed in the police hiring process?

Personal and professional references

What past performance is assessed during the police hiring process?

Past job and academic performance

What financial aspect is reviewed in the police hiring process?

Review financial history/stability

What is police discretion?

An official action by a criminal justice official based on that individual's judgment about the best course of action.

What does the exercise of discretion involve?

The exercise of individual choice or judgment concerning possible courses of action.

What does having decision-making authority mean?

Having the decision-making authority between two or more choices.

Low-visibility work or decisions:

Much of what officers do is describe as "low visibility" or decisions that happen with no or only a small amount of oversight

- These decisions are inherently difficult for administrators or the law to control

• Patrol officers generally work alone or in pairs

• No direct supervision by a sergeant• Police

-citizen encounters occur in private places

pro discretion

Efficient use of scarce resources- Individualized justice- Extensive officer training in criminal and constitutionallaws- Make sound judgment about public policy

con discretion

Potential for discrimination and denial of due process- Potential police-community relations problems- Potential for corruption- Potential for inconsistent law enforcement

Do all occupations experience job stress?

Yes, all occupations have some level of job stress.

Is it clear if stress in policing is higher compared to other occupations?

No, it isn't clear if stress in policing is higher compared to others.

What are major sources of stress for police officers?

The police department itself and other officers are major sources of stress.

What do women officers report as their highest source of stress?

Women officers report male officers as their highest source of stress.

What contributes to police stress related to public interaction?

Citizen disrespect and challenges to police authority contribute to police stress.

How frequent is the threat of danger for police officers?

The threat of danger is statistically infrequent.

What is the guideline that outlines the levels of force officers may use?

Use of force continuum

What does the use of force continuum begin with?

Minimal or no physical force

What does the use of force continuum aim to ensure?

That officers apply force proportionally and appropriately based on circumstances

What determines the escalation of force options in the use of force continuum?

The subject's behavior and the resistance or threat level presented

Police use of Excessive Force:

Refers to instances when an officer applies a level of force beyond what is reasonably necessary to control a situation or ensure public safety- Excessive force goes beyond what is deemed "objectively reasonable" under the circumstances, violating legal standards and potentially infringing on the rights of individuals

Fatal Police Shootings:

On-duty law enforcement officers fatally kill about 1,000 civilians annually

- Demographics typically kept by private sources• Washington Post finds 3,198 fatal shootings since 2015

• Native Americans (10 per 100,000 individuals) most likely to be killed by a law enforcement officer

• Blacks (7 per 100,000 individuals) also much more likely to be killed

Police Corruption/Misconduct:

The abuse of police authority for personal gain or toachieve illegitimate goals- occurs when officers act outside the ethical and legalboundaries of their role, often involving misconduct thatundermines public trust and the integrity of the lawenforcement institution- Police corruption can include a range of behaviors

study of police officers and corruption

39% engaged in brutality- 22% perjury- 31% had sex while on duty- 8% drank on duty- 39% slept on duty

Why is policing so susceptible to corruption?

Police have authority to enforce laws and to use power to make surethat those laws are obeyed• Police also have the discretion to not enforce the law• Police become cynical about the courts' soft treatment of criminals• Practice of recruiting officers from working-class and lower-classbackgrounds, where skepticism about obeying the law might be moreprevalent• Police subculture