Anatomy Exam 1 Shobnom Auburn University

Flow of organism

atoms-->molecules-->organelle-->cellular level-->tissue level-->organ level-->organ system-->organism

Anatomy

"to cut apart", study of structure of body parts and relationships to each other

Physiology

study of function of the body parts, how they work together

Hippocrates

separated disease from superstition

Gross Anatomy (macroscopic)

study of large visible structures

Microscopic Anatomy

tissues and cell anatomy, need help to see them ex: microscopes

Histology

study of tissues

Cytology

study of cells

Developmental Anatomy (Branches of Anatomy)

study of structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood

Embryology (Branches of Anatomy)

study of developments before birth

Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy (Branches of Anatomy)

studies of large body structures such as stomach, lungs, or heart

CT Scan (Computed Tomography)

uses x-rays passed through body in this cross sections (3D)

Ultra Sound

uses waves that are then reflected/scattered when they hit something and are then analyzed by a computer to generate 2D/3D images, very safe but not good for looking at structures surrounded by bone

Anatomic Position

Standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs hanging to the sides, palms facing up upwards

Supine

on back face up

Prone

on belly face down

Superior (Cranial) (Directional Term)

cranial, toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body, above

Inferior (Caudal-tail) (Directional Term)

away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body, below

Ventral (Anterior) (Directional Term)

toward or at the front of the body, in front of

Dorsal (Posterior) (Directional Term)

toward or at the back of the body, behind

Medial (Directional Term)

toward or at the midline of the body, on the inner side of

Lateral (Directional Term)

away from the midline of they body, on the outer side of

Intermediate (Directional Term)

between a more medial and a more lateral structure

Proximal (Directional Term)

closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Distal (Directional Term)

farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Superficial (External) (Directional Term)

toward or at the body surface

Deep (Internal) (Directional Term)

away from the body surface, more internal

Bilateral (Directional Term)

2 sided, affecting both sides equally (humans), symmetrical about our midline

Ipsilateral (Directional Term)

located on same side of the body, right and left leg

Contralateral (Directional Term)

on opposite side, right arm and left leg (right and left arm)

Axial (Body Regions and Planes)

head, neck, trunk (think axis)

Appendicular (Body Regions and Planes)

appendages/limbs

Sagittal Plane

vertical plane that divides the body in right and left halves, midsagittal-equal, parasagittal-unequal

Frontal Plane

vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior halves

Transverse Plane

horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts

Dorsal Body Cavity

contains cranial cavity (in the skull and contains the brain) and vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord)

Ventral Body Cavity

divided into two main cavities separate by the diaphragm

Thoracic Cavity (included in ventral body cavity)

superior to diaphragm, contains heart and lungs

A). pleural cavities (2)- contains lungs

B). mediastinum- contains pericardial cavity which encloses the heart

Abdominopelvic Cavity (included in ventral body cavity)

inferior to diaphragm, 2 parts separated by muscle or membrane

A). abdominal cavity (superior portion)- houses stomach, intestine, spleen, liver, other organs

B). pelvic cavity (inferior portion)- lies in pelvis, houses urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, rectum

Serosa (serous membrane)

thin, double-layered membrane, lines walls of ventral body cavity and outer surfaces of organs

Visceral Serosa (serous membrane)

covers organs

Parietal Serosa (serous membrane)

lines cavity walls

Pleurisy/Peritonitis (serous membrane)

causes roughening of pleurae or peritoneum, causes organs to stick together and drag across one another, very painful

Pleurisy

inflammation of pleura(e)

Peritonitis

inflammation of periotneum

Red Blood Cells (specialized cell)

small, no nucleus, biconcave disc

Skeletal Muscle Cell (specialized cell)

cylindrical, multi-nucleated, long

Neuron (specialized cell)

cell body wth axon and dendrites, neuron may not be detectable to human eye but can have an axonal process one meter long

Sperm Cell (specialized cell)

flagellated

Plasma Membrane (function)

acts as an active barrier separating intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid (ECF)

Plasma Membrane (structure)

consists of membrane lipids that form a flexible lipid bilayer, specialized membrane proteins float through this fluid membrane, resulting in constantly changing patters a.k.a fluid mosaic

Glycocalyx

formed by surface sugars (carbs), sticks out of cell surface, some cancer cells can change so rapidly our immune system cannot detect them as being damaged cells, this allows them to replicate

Tight Junctions (integral protein)

between adjacent cells, keeps substances from passing between cells, ex: found between epithelial cells of digestive tract

Desmosomes (integral protein)

"velcro" protein filaments, extend from adjacent cells and link them together

Gap Junctions (integral protein)

allow communication between cells, used to spread ions, simple sugars or other small molecules between cells, found in electrically excitable tissues, ex: smooth muscle, heart

Cytoplasm/Cytoskeleton

material between plasma membrane and nucleus, contains cytosol and organelles

Lysosomes

organelle in cells, "cleaning crew", breaks down waste

Smooth ER

most cells contain relatively little if any, enzymes involved in many functions, storage site of calcium in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells

Tay Sachs Disease

specific enzyme found in lysosomes breaks down lipids in brain and nerve cells, lipids build up and damage cells, first listlessness, then blindness, then seizures, children rarely live beyond 4-5 years, no cure/treatment

Plasma Membrane (type)

selectively (differentially) permeable, some molecules pass through easily and osme do not

Electrochemical Gradient

concentration gradient + electrical gradient

Diffusion

movement of molecules down their concentration gradients (from high to low), energy is not required

Passive Transport

no ATP needed, substances move down their concentration gradient from (high to low), proteins work by changing shape

Active Transport

ATP needed, substances go against their concentration gradient from (low to high), proteins work by changing shape, requires carrier proteins (solute pumps), bind specifically and reversibly with substance being moved, some carriers transport more than one substance

Simple Diffusion (passive transport)

substances pass through lipid bilayer, small molecules like O2, CO2, and lipid soluble vitamins, and lipid soluble molecules

Facilitated Diffusion (passive transport)

substances move across membrane by protein channels or carrier proteins, glucose, amino acis, ions, carrier proteins are specific for one substance, ions mostly pass through channels, ex: Na channel only transports Na

Clinical Homeostatic Imbalance

if plasma membrane is severely damaged, substances diffuse freely into and out of cell, compromising concentration gradients, ex: burn patients lose fluids

Osmosis (passive transport)

water moving through semi-permeable membran

Hypertonic

cells lose water and shrink

Hypotonic

cells swell and take in water until they burst (lyse)

Isotonic

cells stay the same size

Bulk (filtration) Flow (passive transport)

movement of solutes and water from high pressure to low pressure, faster rate than diffusion and osmosis, ex: bulk flow in kidney

Antiporters (active transport)

transport one substance into cell while transporting a different out

Symporters (active transport)

transport 2 different substances in same directon

Bulk (vesicular) Transport (active transport)

large substances transported in vesicles

A). endocytosis- bringing substance into the cell

1. phagocytosis- engulfing molecules/bacteria "cell-eating"

2. pinocytosis- engulfing water "cell drinking"

B). exocytosis- removing substance from the cell

Exocytosis

secretory vesicle contains substance to be removed, moves to and fuses with plasma membrane, ruptures which expulses the contents

Phagocytosis

particle binds to receptors on cell surface, pseudopods (cytoplasmic extensions) develop and reach out to envelope particle forming a vesicle around the particle

Pinocytosis

invagination of plasma membrane which surrounds extracellular fluid

Primary Active Transport

solutes bind to the transport protein, ATP is split into ADP and P, provides energy for protein to change shape which "pumps" solute across the membrane against its electrochemical gradient, ex: Na+/K+, ATPase Pump, (3Na+ out for every 2K+ in)

Secondary Active Transport

low Na+ concentration that is maintained inside cell by Na+/K+ pump strengthens Na+ drive to want to enter cell, Na+ can pick up other molecules as it enters cell through carrier proteins, simultaneous movement of 2 substances through transport protein

Membrane Potential

difference in electrical charge across plasma membrane

Resting Membrane Potential

membrane potential when cels in resting state about (70mV), inside cell has overall negative charge relative to outside

How is resting membrane potential established?

K+ diffuses out of cell by leakage channels down concentration gradient, negative charged proteins can't leave so cytoplasmic side of cell becomes more negative, K+ is pulled back by more negative interior, when drive for K+ is balanced by drive to stay, RMP is established (RMP is usually about -90mV), electrochemical gradient K+ sets up RMP, Na+ also affect RMP, attracted into cell by negative charge when Na+enters, RMP goes up to about (-70mV), membrane is more permeable to K+ than Na+ so, K+ is primary drive of RMP, Cl- does not influence RMP because concentration and electrical gradients are equally balanced

Tissues-

group of cells similar in structure and serve a similar, specialized function

Polarity

have top (apical surface) and bottom (basal surface)

Basement Membrane

point of attachment for epithelial and connective tissue

Basal Lamina

what makes up the basement membrane, glycoproteins from epithelial tissue and collagen fibers

Reticular Lamina

glycoproteins from connective tissue and collage fibers

Cilia

hair like projections, help propel substances, ex: nasal cavity, trachea

Microvilli

extensions of plasma membrane, help increase surface area, small intestines

Endocrine

produce hormones and secrete them into bloodstream via exocytosis

Exocrine

secrete product onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities

Unicellular (exocrine glands)

mucous and goblet cells, produce mucin which is a glycoprotein that dissolves in water when secreted forming mucus, secret product by exocytosis

Multicellular (exocrine glands)

consist of a duct and secretory

Simple Duct (exocrine glands)

unbranched duct (simple tubular, simple branched tubular, simple alveolar, simple branched alveolar)

Compound Duct (exocrine glands)

branched duct (compound tubular, compound alveolar, compound tubuloalveolar)

Alveolar (acinar) (exocrine glands)

secretory cells form small sacs (simple alveolar, simple branched alveolar, compound alveolar, compound tubuloalveolar)

Tubular (exocrine glands)

secretory cells from tubes (simple tubular, simple branched tubular, compound tubular)

Tubuloalveolar (exocrine glands)

alveolar + tubular (compound (tubuloalveolar)

Holocrine (exocrine glands)

"whole membrane rupturing", ex: sebaceous glands, pimple