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Communication
The sending and receiving of information, ideas, feelings, needs, and desires. An active process that involves encoding and decoding.
Language
A socially shared conventional system of arbitrary symbols organized according to basic rules that are common across all languages.
Speech
The verbal expression of language.
Dynamic
Language is _______. It changes overtime.
Echolalia
The imitation of words, phrases, or whole sentences in the absence of an understanding their meaning.
Charles F. Hockett
(1960) Wrote “The Origin of Speech” detailing the 13 design-features of language, which separates human speech from other forms of animal communication.
Vocal-auditory channel
One of Hockett’s design features.
Humans communicate by forcing air through their vocal folds.
Benefit: leaves our hands free to do other things while we communicate.
Broadcast transmission & directional reception
One of Hockett’s design features.
Speech radiates in all directions when produced and can be received by any listener in range.
A listener can compare the loudness and timing of signals reaching each ear and determine the direction from which the sound is coming.
Rapid fading
One of Hockett’s design features.
Speech signals are transitory (they do not linger).
Interchangeability
One of Hockett’s design features.
Any human being can say anything said by any other human being (imitation).
Total feedback
One of Hockett’s design features.
Human speakers can monitor what we say and how we say it.
Understanding how speech feels.
Specialization
One of Hockett’s design features.
Speech is specifically designed for communication and serves no other purpose.
Semanticity
One of Hockett’s design features. **
Humans convey very specific messages with words having relatively stable relationships with the people, things, events, and concepts they represent.
Arbitrariness
One of Hockett’s design features.
There is nothing inherent in a spoken word to account for its meaning.
Advantage: no limit to how we use language to describe.
Ex: there is no reason why a chair is called a chair.
Discreteness
One of Hockett’s design features.
Each language is limited to a finite/discrete number of sounds.
Each sound used in one or more human languages has very specific characteristics.
Displacement
One of Hockett’s design features. **
Humans can talk about things distant in time and/or space.
Productivity
One of Hockett’s design features. **
Humans have the ability to be creative in their communication efforts.
We can say things we have never said before.
Duality of patterning
One of Hockett’s design features.
Sounds can be combined in infinite ways to produce an infinite variety of words.
Words can be combined into an infinite variety of sentences.
Traditional transmission
One of Hockett’s design features. **
Speech is instinctive in humans.
We have a genetic/biological capacity for language so powerful that few environmental factors can stop the acquisition of speech.
The rate at which it’s required may affect its quality.
4 most important design-features
Semanticity, displacement, productivity, & traditional transmission.
Prevarication
Additional design feature not included by Hockett.
The ability to lie.
Reflexiveness
Additional design feature not included by Hockett.
Using language to analyze language itself.
Learnability
Additional design feature not included by Hockett.
Any human language is capable of being learned equally (when it’s the 1st language).
6 steps/links in the speech chain
Speaker sorts through thoughts, decides which to express, and makes decisions about how to express them.
Speaker puts message into language form by going through lexicon to select appropriate words/grammatical structure.
Brain sends neural impulse instructions to the muscles of speech: the muscles of respiration, larynx, pharynx, and face.
Movements of the speech structures interrupt/constrict the flow of vibrating air from the larynx. Small pressure changes = sound waves, create compression.
Listener’s hearing mechanism activated as particles pump into eardrums.
Listener’s brain analyzes/interprets the neural impulses to recognize the speaker’s message.
1/2
Amount of world’s languages no longer learned by children.
Communicative competence
The degree to which a speaker is successful in communicating. Measured by appropriateness and effectiveness of the message. John Dore talks about it a lot.
Paralinguistic cues
Nonverbal elements of communication that accompany spoken language:
Suprasegmental features: Intonation, stress, speed, pause/hesitation.
Intonation
Pitch
Stress
Emphasis on certain words/syllables.
Nonlinguistic cues
Gestures, body language, facial expressions, posture, proxemics (use of space).
Metalinguistic codes
Abilities to talk about, analyze, think about, and judge language.
(Similar to reflexiveness - #15)
3 properties of language
Social/interactive tool.
Language is rule-governed: grammar, linguistic competence, linguistic performance.
Generative - productive; infinite # of sentences (similar to productivity - #11).
Grammar
System of underlying rules that describe relationships between symbols of a language.
Linguistic competence
Underlying knowledge of a language’s rules.
Linguistic performance
Linguistic knowledge in actual usage.
3 components of language
Form, content, use.
Lois Bloom & Margaret Lahey
The people who divided language into the 3 components in the 70s.
Parameters of form
Syntax, morphology, phonology.
Parameter of content
Semantics
Parameter of use
Pragmatics
Syntax
Word order, sentence organization, etc.
Nouns/verbs are main elements of a sentence.
Specifies acceptable/grammatical word combinations.
English = SVO (subject, verb, object).
Some languages have much more free word order.
Morphology
Internal organization of words.
Consist of 1 or more morphemes.
Morpheme
Smallest grammatical unit capable of carrying meaning. Indivisible without violating the meaning of the word/producing meaningless units.
Free morpheme
Morpheme that can stand alone.
Bound morpheme
Morphemes that must attach to a free morpheme.
Prefixes & suffixes.
Derivational or inflectional.
Derivational morpheme
Bound morpheme that can change word class (adjective → adverb).
Inflectional morpheme
Bound morphemes that do not change word class.
Tense & plural markers (-ed, -s).
Phonology
Structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds.
Phonemes - smallest unit of speech sound. 43 in English.
Distributional and sequencing rules that govern phonology.
Distributional rules
Rules that describe which speech sounds can be used in various positions of a word (ex: /ŋ/ never appears in the beginning of a word).
Sequencing rules
Rules that say which sounds can occur in combination (ex: /d/ & /n/ cannot appear back to back in the same syllable).
Address sound modifications that are made when 2 phonemes appear next to each other.
Semantics
System of rules governing the meaning (content) or words/word combinations.
Word meaning contains sematic features and selection restrictions.
The more features words share, the more alike they are (synonyms).
Semantic knowledge = rich vocabulary.
Semantic meanings are more important than individual word meanings.
Semantic features
Aspects of the meaning that characterize a word.
Ex: for the word “mother,” semantic features contain “parent” & “female”.
Selection restrictions
Prohibit certain word combinations that would otherwise be meaningless/redundant.
Ex: “male mother” and “female mother” are redundant.
World knowledge
A person’s autobiographical/experimental understanding of the world and their memory of particular events.
Primarily verbal.
Forms each person’s lexicon - mental dictionary.
Word knowledge is based on world knowledge.
Pragmatics
A set of rules related to language use within communicative context.
Selecting appropriate linguistic form: “give me” vs. “may I have”.
Speech act.
Conversations are governed by the cooperation principles.
The overall organizing principle of language, determining the other 4.
Speech act
A statement/action that conveys meaning and must meet the following criteria for validity:
Involves the appropriate people/circumstances.
Complete.
Appropriate intentions.
Can be direct or indirect.
Can be literal or nonliteral.
Direct speech act
A speech act clearly stated in the form of a command or request.
Reflects syntactic form.
(ex: answer the phone).
Indirect speech act
A speech act that has implied meaning, often used for politeness.
Does not reflect syntactic form.
(ex: could you please answer the phone?)
Literal speech act
A speech act that means exactly what is said.
(ex: “it is raining” when it’s raining)
Nonliteral speech act
A speech act that conveys a different meaning, often through sarcasm.
(ex: “great weather we’re having” when it’s raining)
Cooperation principles
Introduced by Herbert Grice in 1975.
Governs conversations.
Quantity
Quality
Relation
Manner
Quantity
Cooperation principle.
Participants in a conversation should provide the right amount of information.
Information should not be overly/lacking in detail.
Quality
Cooperation principle.
Speakers should always say what they believe to be truthful.
Maxim of Relation
Cooperation principle.
Contributions to a conversation should be relevant.
Maxim of Manner
Cooperation principle.
Each participant should be reasonably direct and non-ambiguous.
Video filming rules
Monolingual speaker.
12-30 months old.
Intelligible.
Naturalistic play interaction, preferably in the home.
Mom isn’t always the best choice for an interactor.
Look at the total picture for context, not just the child’s mouth.
Ask mom for their toy preferences & permission to bring materials.
100 utterances recommended. Can be of various lengths.
Minimum of 30 minute tape length. Longer recommended.
Collect at least 2 samples.
Good materials to have during language sample
Blocks, stuffed animals, make-believe toys, playdoh, bubbles, cars, puzzles, music, light-up toys, dolls, farm animals, ball, books.
CDI - words and gestures
MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory.
8-16 months old.
CDI - words and sentences
MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory.
16-30 months old.
Looks at:
Vocabulary production
Grammatical development
Morphology
Gives percentile scores, allowing comparison to same age peers.
Part 1 to CDI - words and sentences
A) Vocabulary production checklist, 680 words, semantic categories.
B) How children use words: tenses & objects/events.
Part 2 to CDI - words and sentences
A) Word endings (-s)
B) Word forms (nouns, verbs)
C) Over-regularizations (“goed” instead of went)
Q: has child began combining words? Only continue if yes.
D) 3 longest sentences they’ve said.
E) Sentence complexity. 2nd will be more advanced than the 1st.
Chronological age (CA)
The actual age of an individual.
Measured in months.
Shows expectations for that age.
Standardized tests use it to tell you where to start/stop and how to score.
Requires birthday and date of session.
5 parameters of language
Syntax, morphology, phonology, semantics, pragmatics.
Development principles
Development is predictable.
Developmental milestones are attained at about the same age in most children.
Opportunity for development is needed.
Children go through developmental phases.
Individuals differ greatly.
Cephalocaudal progression
Motor development that proceeds from the head downwards.
4 areas of development
Physical/motor
Cognitive
Socioemotional
Communicative growth
Physical/motor development
Developmental area.
Physical growth and development of motor control.
Gross motor skills
Larger movements of the body.
Coordination of head, torso, and limbs.
Crawling, walking, running, jumping.
Fine motor skills
Smaller, more precise movements of the body.
Coordination of fingers and hands.
Grasping objects, writing, using utensils.
Cognitive development
Developmental area.
Intellectual growth.
Organizing, storing, retrieving information.
Problem-solving, reasoning, memory.
Socioemotional development
Developmental area.
Social skills and emotional understanding.
Children become less egocentric as they grow older.
Communicative development
Developmental area.
Ability to use linguistic symbols (words & gestures) to communicate effectively.
Depends on the attainment of certain motor, cognitive, and social abilities.
Newborn
Developmental title for 0-1 month olds.
Examiner
Developmental title for 1-6 month olds.
Experimenter
Developmental title for 7-12 month olds.
Explorer
Developmental title for 12-24 month olds.
Exhibitor
Developmental title for 3-5 year olds.
Expert
Developmental title for 6-12 year olds.
Newborn physical development
Unable to control motor behavior voluntarily/smoothly.
Involuntary motor patterns (reflexes).
Phasic bite & rooting reflexes.
Phasic bite reflex
Bite-release action when gums receive stimulation. Disappears around 3-4 mo.
Rooting reflex
Reflex where babies will turn their jaws when their cheek is lightly stimulated.
Newborn cognitive development
Near-sighted at birth.
See best at 7.5 inches away.
Short-term visual memory if the object reappears within 2.5 seconds.
Newborn socioemotional development
Comforted by the human voice.
Smile is reflexive.
Newborn communicative growth
Most sounds are reflexive.
Fussing, burping, crying.
Quasi-resonant nuclei (QRN).
Quasi-resonant nuclei (QRN)
Vowel-like sounds with a brief consonantal element.
May accompany feeding.
Produced by newborns.
Examiner physical development
Begin to examine surroundings, reach, and grasp.
May be able to creep, roll over, and have head/neck control.
If sitting, hands are free to examine objects.
Examiner cognitive development
Visual memory extends to 3 hours.
Examiner socioemotional development
Social smile (smile in response to familiar faces).
Examiner communicative development
2 mo search visually for their mother’s voice, not for strange voices.
5 mo can imitate general sounds and babble (single syllable units).
Fully resonant nuclei (FRN).
Fully resonant nuclei (FRN)
Full vowel-like sounds (aaaaaaa).
Produced by examiners.