Anth 112 : State Civilizations

Chpt 10, 11

State Society

class societies, often rigidly stratified into social levels

the ruling class controls populace, not by consensus but by coercion and force

the rulers in a state society have the power to levy and collect taxes, to establish and enforce laws, and to conscript people to do the work of the state

Civilization

the term civilization describes urbanized, state societies

civilizations display defining characteristics that distinguish them from other societies

there are 6 early civilizations we will talk about

Characteristics of Civilization - 7

1. Food surplus : rely on agricultural base, can be distributed but often means that there is a person in power of distribution

2. Large dense populations : true cities, growth of cities since agriculture rise; 10 of thousands, even hundreds of thousands in a population

3. Social Stratification : societies are divided into levels; palaces, buildings dedicated to, burial of the elite

4. formal government : groups of elite who have the decision making power that rule over the rest of society; pay taxes, create laws, organize workforce

5. Labor specialization : certain individuals who can devote their time and energy to specialized tasks; craft specialists - with a surplus not everyone needs to be producing food

6. System of record keeping : around 5000yrs ago we see the development of some form of writing; keeping track of what is being produced, who is ruling, what rituals occurred

7. Monumental works : most visible indicators; construction of these monuments indicated the need for workforce organization

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia - the land between two rivers, area of land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

home to the world’s earliest urban societies

the movement towards civilization first occurred in the Southern Mesopotamia in the region called Sumer

Sumerians represent the first urban civilization

• first true cities

• rivers played a huge role - surrounding area, rich farmland, fertile soil, many farming settlements, few hundred people, clear reliance on agriculture, domestication of crops, seeing an increase in population - requirements for state level civilization

• Northern Mesopotamia was the first area of ag settlements

• As population increased, people had to move, expand territory, spread into southern Mesopotamia, harder to practice ag, gradual development

Mesopotamia - Ubaid Period (5000-4000BC)

this is the earliest well-represented period in southern Mesopotamia

development of irrigation allowed expansion of farming into the south

larger settlements develop during the Ubaid period

there is evidence of increasing complexity during the Ubaid period

• larger settlements, social status, architecture

• need to concentrate population in the rich, fertile land - near water sources

• complex social status, complicated irrigation development

Mesopotamia - Uruk Period (4000-3200 BC)

the first urban sites appear during this period

the defining characteristic of civilization are evident during this period

settlements in Sumer becoming much larger, seeing all the defining characteristic

first true cities emerged in this time

Uruk — oldest known city

the city was the largest site in a landscape densely settles with smaller towns and villages

the city grew around its central temple precinct

by 2900 BC, 50,000 people may have lived in this city

some of the earliest written documents come from Uruk

• large urban population, dense population

• surrounded by defensive walls

• ceremonial temples, 2, at the center, major public buildings

• written documents recovered - clay tablets, symbols - found in the temples, the writings are associated with religion, religious elite were the administrators, main source of power, oversaw the distribution of needs

Mesopotamia - Early Dynastic Period (3200-2350 BC)

the period when a series of competing city-states developed in southern Mesopotamia

a city-state is a self-governing city and surrounding territory

• not one ruler - number of competing centers of authority

Ur, Mesopotamia

Ur was a significant Early Dynastic period city-state

extensive excavations at Ur were led by Leonard Wooley in the 1920s

these excavations revealed a large cemetery, administrative buildings, palaces, and temples

Ur has one of the most complete ziggurats that remain today

• a ziggurat is a Sumerian mud brick temple

• the ziggurat has several stepped platforms with a temple on top, very large

• 4000yrs ago, Sumerian King constructed, dedicated to the city’s most important god, sacred area that would also include the King’s palaces, rest of population would live around

Ur Royal Tombs

Wooley’s excavations at Ur also revealed a cemetery with about 2000 burials

the cemetery displays striking evidence of social stratification

16 graves were identified as royal tombs

the royal tombs were elaborate, stone built tombs stocked with enormous quantities of grave goods

• early cemetery - most are simple burials, buried in a mat, one or two grave goods

• ramps leading into, covered top, elaborate grave goods, followers in death, sacrificial deaths, indicating striking social difference

• chariots have been found as well, huge celebrations for the rulers

• specialist skills - statues, instruments found

• Wooley was very careful in his excavations - often made casts

Pun-abi’s Tomb

one of the royal tombs at Ur belonged to a Queen named Pu-abi

she wore an elaborate head dress and was buried with enormous wealth

know her name and title because of her Cylinder Seal

• was buried with everything they may need in the afterlife

• buried with these types of objects - can tell they were rulers - lots of gold and gemstones, the skill of craftsmen

• Cylinder Stone - inch and a half - symbols, titles, names - roll the cylinder over wet clay, like having a signature - hollowed out, probably worn

• no husband found - often “wife of” was written - women were powerful rulers, can rule in their own right

• followers of death - thought to have a peaceful death, but recently have found head wounds, also has been evidence of mercury, led to believe some were preserved for the death of a ruler

• evidence of trade - no natural resources present, no gemstones available locally

• body adorned with - head dress; cone, covered in gold, wreathes around her head, wreathes of leaves, hair wrapped in gold ribbon, hair rings, large earrings, several necklaces, beaded cloak, over 50 strings

Development of writing in Mesopotamia

5 stages have been identified

1. 9000yrs ago, people in the Mesopotamia began recording information using clay tokens - 16 basic shapes of tokens have been identified

• used to keep track of info, measures of grain, number of animals

• oldest found in the fertile crescent - variety of shapes, 1-3cm across

2. by 6000yrs ago, token became more elaborate and expanded to 300 shapes with various etchings on their surface

• more types of information being recorded

3. by 5500yrs ago, token were stored in clay containers called envelopes

• clay balls have tokens sealed inside - shape of tokens impressed on the outside of the ball

4. by 5200yrs ago, envelopes were no longer used, and the shapes of the tokens were instead impressed on a flattened piece of clay

5. by 5100yrs ago, tokens were no longer used - instead scribes impressed symbols directly into wet clay using a stylus - marks the beginning of cuneiform writing

• true system of writing emerged

• early tablets have a more pictographic script - record economic transactions, amount of barley being produced - found in temples

• later - mythical stories, accomplishments of rulers, dictionaries, etc.

• scribes were high status, control of knowledge and access to wealth

Cylinder Seals

a type of artifact that is often recovered from Mesopotamia sites

they are small stone cylinders carved with elaborate scenes

an image is produced when the seal is rolled over wet clay

the seals served as personal identifiers

sealing bundles, signatures, legal documents

Tells

mounds of accumulated rubble representing the site of an ancient city

• when people lived in the same area for many years, massive ones will be found

• homes fall down and are rebuilt, rubble put into one pile

• can find culture change, look at stratification, further down the older

• layers of occupation

• remains of buildings and everyday items thrown

• current day cities built on some

Ancient Egypt

Egyptian civilization flourished in northeast Africa, along the Nile River Valley

annual flooding of the Nile River deposited rich silt - this fertile soil made the area well suited for farming

population was concentrated in the valley area

Upper and Lower Egypt - were under two different rulers, eventually joined into one

Egypt - Predynastic Period (5300 to 3000 BC)

movement toward complexity can be seen during this period

there is evidence of larger settlements, more permanent housing forms, and increasing evidence of social stratification

during the Predynastic, Upper and Lower Egypt were ruled by several competing chiefdoms

heavy reliance on agriculture

number of different rulers emerged across this regions

ends with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt

Dynastic Period - the Unification of Egypt - 3000BC

the unification under one ruler in 3000BC marks the beginning of this period

the unification is depicted on an artifact called the Narmer Palette

was discovered at Hierakonpolis in 1897

the Palette is inscribed with Narmer’s name and depicts him wearing the crowns of both Upper and Lower Egypt

• conical crown of Upper, headdress crown of Lower - ruler over both

Egypt Chronology

Predynastic and Dynastic

Old Kingdom - First Intermediate - Middle Kingdom - Second Intermediate - New Kingdom - Third Intermediate

Kingdom periods - stability

Intermediate - decline in stability, war, uprising

Egyptian Record Keeping

Hieroglyphs are ancient Egyptian writing system

the script was first used over 5000yrs ago

5,200 year old tokens from a tomb at Abydos may represent an accounting of goods included in the king’s burial

• ancient picture writing

• origins much harder to determine - tokens may represent, pictographs on containers - counting of materials

Rosetta Stone

a very important artifact - allowed scholars to decipher hieroglyphs - was carved in 196BC and has the same text written in three types of script including :

• Hieroglyphs - Egyptian script that was the sacred language

• Demotic - Egyptian script used for daily purposes

• Greek - this was the language of administration in 196BC

discovered in the late 1700s

when found, no one knew what the Egyptians languages stated, but could crack the code using the Greek

was the account of the rulers accomplishments

same stone found in other areas of Egypt - story was shared around the region

Egypt Formal Leadership

Egyptian society had powerful rulers called Pharaohs

had a hereditary bureaucracy - kingship passed from father to son

pharaoh was considered a god

• there were some exceptions - were powerful female rulers

• many depictions of elite

• more than a human, a divine leader - they were responsible for flooding the valley, huge role in the afterlife, so much planning went into the afterlife, tombs took decades to build

Egyptian Monumental Architecture

monumental architecture is a characteristic of state civilizations

the ancient Egyptians built many large-scale monuments including temples, administrative buildings, and mortuary complexes

the most well known monuments are the pyramids which served as tombs for the pharaohs - these provide striking evidence of social stratification

• Old Kingdom period - marks the beginning of pyramid building, most were constructed during this time

• New Kingdom period - burial practices changed, more hidden

Djoser’s Pyramid - the first pyramid

built at Saqqara for an Early Dynastic period pharaoh named Djoser who ruled from 2630 to 2611 BC

Djoser’s stepped pyramid marks the beginning of the tradition of pyramid building

this practice emerged from the earlier practice of burials in low rectangular mud brick or stone tombs called mastabas

• mastabas - covered the grave of elite members of society

the pyramid measures 60m high, has 5.7km of shafts, tunnels, chambers, and galleries underground

full of everything they may need in the afterlife, was believed they would go on to live forever

• oldest surviving pyramid, Old Kingdom

• designed by his advisor and architect, burial complex

• 37 acres, limestone wall surrounded the rest of the area - had temples, buildings, other burials, most prominent was this one

• was added onto, 6 stepped pyramid - the newer ones are flat sided

Sneferu’s Pyramid

Sneferu continued the tradition

his pyramids began the tradition of smooth sided pyramids with internal chambers

he had two pyramids at Dashur - the Red pyramid and the Bent pyramid

had a number of pyramids built over his ruling

• Red - would have been encased in white limestone, would have shone, polished look

• chambers are built within the pyramid, not just within the ground

The Pyramids at Giza

the most well0known and elaborate pyramids were built at Giza, on the outskirts of present-day Cairo

three generations of pharaohs, named Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure, were buried at this site

the pyramids were the largest structures at the site, but they are only one part of the burial complex, which also included temples, causeways, boat pits, and queen’s pyramids

Khufu’s Pyramid - The Great Pyramid

the oldest and largest pyramids was built by Khufu who came to power after the death of his father Sneferu

was constructed with over 2.3 million hand cut stone blocks, each weighing an average 2.5 tons - would have taken 23yrs to construct, huge workforce needed

• thought to be slaves - but now there is evidence of skilled, well taken car of people; settlements have been found nearby, where the force must have loved during the build - bakeries, hospitals, animal fat found

• ancient graffiti inside the pyramid, the builders left their mark - was honoring the pharaoh

this pyramid was the largest human made structure in the world for over 4000yrs

there are passageways and chambers within and beneath the pyramid

ramps built for the building process, wooden sledged help pull along

depictions of the elite - only one depiction confirmed inscription, name on it, found at a separate site - ivory statue

Khafre’s Pyramid and Sphinx

the second largest pyramid at Giza was constructed for Khufu’s son, Khafre

also has internal structures

his burial complex includes the great Sphinx and associated temple

• Nemes - headdress of pharaohs - on the Sphinx

• Sphinx was carved out of a natural outcrop, carved from the land, weathering present

• Sphinx is crouched by an important temple - was covered in sand, took many years to excavate

Giza pyramids would have also been encased in white limestone, gleaming

both robbed in antiquities

evidence of trying to drill through stone, to find hidden chambers

• perhaps indicated why in the New Kingdom the graves were hidden

** Honor the god in death, powerful indicator of the state - showing off wealth and power

The Valley of the Kings

New Kingdom period site - pharaohs continued to be buried in elaborate tombs, but instead of large pyramids that were visible on the landscape, the tombs were hidden away

the Valley dates between 3500 and 3000yrs ago

the rulers were buried in hidden chambers but into cliffs - long corridors lead to tombs that were filled with valuable grave goods

the most famous tomb in the Valley of the Kings is KV 62 - King Tut

• series of rulers from Thebes - capital of the kingdom

• intentionally hidden - save the tombs from robbers - wasn’t successful, almost all have been looted

• King Tut’s tomb was undisturbed

KV 62 - Tutankhamun’s Tomb

discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter

was completely undisturbed, no robbery of antiquities - when found was still stocked with thousands of grave goods

• richest to ever survive

• bundles of food, clothing games, walking stick, disassembled chariots, thrones, gems

• his sarcophagus had begun to deteriorate, within was a triple layered coffin, outside layers wood, inner most was pure gold

• over 2500lbs of gold in the burial - most recent estimate, 67 millions of todays dollars in gold

the discovery of his intact tomb led to Tut becoming one of the most well-known Egyptian rulers

• however, he had a short reign, and was actually considered a poor pharaoh

• ruled from 8 to 18, when he died

• had an incredible amount of wealth - imagine what was in the well-known burials, the wealthy king burials

• pretty small tomb compared to others - most likely a surprising death, short rule, not enough time to plan and build his tomb

• mold in tomb - wet plaster, hurried burial, rushed

• less artwork, paintings - odd choosing of imagery, large picturing

King Tut Life - Mummification Process

had a young wife, Ankhesenamun - his half-sister, was depicted in tomb

two young children found, each in own coffin, also in tomb - babies did not survive, preterm and died at birth - buried with father

common for siblings to marry - keep power in the family - high number of deformities

multiple senet game sets, thought to be an avid player - entertainment in the afterlife

after his death, his advisor became the ruler, Eye, thought to have been murdered

death - malaria, broken bones, infection - bones could have been caused by the grave removal

Mummification process

• most of what we know is from written records from Greece

• 70-day process

• prep - internal organs, omit heart, are removed - soul is thought to be in the heart

• usually, brain removed through the nasal cavity

• body packed with salt, left for 40 days, all moisture is drawn out of body, tissue would preserve

• wrapped in bandages, linen, and dressed accordingly

• caches of thousands of mummified animals have been found, offerings

Early Chinese Civilization

by about 5000yrs ago, the Lung-shan culture of the Yellow River Valley shows evidence of emerging complexity including elite rulers and monumental architecture such as stamped earth walls

Hang-T’u - Chinese term for stamped or pounded and compacted earth used to make structures

• a canter of agriculture - millet, rice, pigs, dogs - more permanent dwellings, production of pottery, larger settlements

• carved jade, exotic valuable goods - buried goods

• monumental architecture - large walls that enclosed the villages, incredibly large defensive walls - compacted the ground method

• gradual process, the Shang Dynasty is marked as the first, but there were others growing

the Shang Dynasty

dates 1600 to 1046 BC

is considered the first historic, urban civilization in northern China

• many urban areas, palaces, workshops, dwellings, cemeteries, pits, sacrificial victims - all indicate powerful rulers

Shang Bronze Work

the Shang are famous for their bronze work

ritual vessels are the most common category of bronze objects

bronze manufacturing catered to the needs of the elite

• many royal burials included mass amounts of bronze

• bronze workshops are near the royal buildings - for the wealthy

• 16,000kg of bronze found in one grave

• specialist craftspeople - indicator of complexity, state-level civilization

• peace mold technique - bronze vessel making

Shang Royal Burials

royals were buried in elaborate tombs with human retainers and many grave goods

• defining characteristic

• hereditary bureaucracy - passed down royalty, king, beneath him were lower rulers, divided into districts, each had own ruler - rigidly stratified

• evidence of enormous amounts of grave goods and sacrificial bodies - followers in death, servant, people you may need in the afterlife

• chariots found, rare at this time period - buried with charioteers

Record Keeping - Shang Oracle Bones

writing appeared during the Shang Dynasty

oracle bones were used for divination - telling the future

scapulimancy - used animal shoulder bones (scapulae), question was written on bone, and then heated - cracks are interpreted - predicted events - the actual events are usually written after on it as well

long lasting record of events - about 40% of symbols are used today’s Chinese language

pits with caches of these have been found

Early Chinese Dynasties

Shang - 1600 to 1046 BC

Zhou - 1046 to 256 BC

Qin - 221 to 206 BC

• Qin - don’t see sacrificial burials - instead see statues

The Terracotta Army

site is located at Xi’an, China - Qin Dynasty site

the terracotta army contains about 8,000 life-sized, clay soldiers

was part of a burial complex of Qin Shihuang - was a powerful ruler who unified China in 221 BC, he is called China’s first emperor

• discovered in 1974, by a group of farmers digging for a well

• terracotta - baked clay

• 6ft tall soldiers, standing in corridors in the ground

• individual soldiers - not one is the same, expressions, hair styles are all different

• 600 horses, generals, archers, cavalry men

• would have been holding weapons - deteriorated

• marker’s mark on - which workshop they came from

• used to be covered in pigments - any exposure will cause to flake off - used to be vibrant and colorful

about a km away from the actual tomb - incredibly large burial complex

• the mound and complex itself was huge, 56 square km

• temples shrines, administrative buildings, wall would have surrounded

• the tomb itself has never been excavated

Sima Qian wrote :

• 700,000 men would have made it, hundreds of years to make

• created a whole world below the ground for the emperor

• even said it has a waterway of mercury and crossbows protecting it, stopping people in entering

of course we don’t actually know, not excavated

Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization

the Indus Valley Civilization flourished in present day Pakistan and India on the Indus River floodplain and surrounding area

the roots of this civilization can be seen as sites like Mehrgarh

• a farming settlement that was occupied as early as 8,500yrs ago

• it reveals evidence of larger permanent dwellings and communal grain storage facilities

• river valley, rich agricultural land, reliable flooding

• settlements built on mounds, and walls for protection for flooding

• thousands of settlements - largest ancient area introduced yet

• domestication of plants and animals - wheat, barley, goats, stone tools for harvesting grains, grains preserved in mud bricks

• shift to the flood plain - artificial mounds made for homes

Mature Harappan Period

during this period, about 4500 to 4000yrs ago, several large, urban centers developed, flourishing during this time

two major cities include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro

• high degree of cultural sharing - characteristic pottery styles, religious unification, standardized pottery and figurines, writing on square seals, baked bricks of the same size, similar layout of settlements

• lower area - domestic buildings, urban, regular street, strict plan

• upper area - citadel, protected, wealthy

Harappa - Indus Valley

a fortified city in the Indus valley of northeastern Pakistan

• water wells, each home has own toilet - hygiene was important, cleanliness

• first site to be excavated

• construction of the railway led to lots of damage from this site - used the rubble and mud bricks from this site

• 23,000 to 40,000 people - dense population

• “granary” found, communal grain storage possible

Mohenjo-daro - Indus Valley

an early Indus Valley city in south-central Pakistan

were carefully planned with streets laid out in a grid pattern

• divided into two separate areas again, upper and lower

• up to 45,000 people in this settlement

• mud bricks produced - all standardized sizes

• most well preserved settlement in area

• consistency in layout - alleyways, central streets, 90 degree angles

• monumental architecture - no palaces or massive burial grounds - the rulers seem to not be lording their wealth over the community

• was the Great Bath - meticulous brick placing, 8ft deep, large swimming pool idea, can be drained

• over 700 wells - complex drainage system, hygiene - bathing areas in almost every home, had drains to take dirty water to the edge of the city

Record Keeping - Indus Stamp Seals

the Indus Civilization had a system of record keeping

it became widespread by 4,400yrs ago - the script has not yet been deciphered

• handmade, drilled beads - evidence of trade, Mesopotamia objects and beads sourced here

• no bilingual documents, this civilization is more mysterious

• 419 different symbols have been identified, many scripts have been found

• no long literary works have been found

• personal identifiers - stamp seals - small, couple inches

• board found at entrance of a town - thought to be name of the settlement

Cubical Weights - Indus

had standardized weights in graduated sizes

• cube-shaped - probably used in trade, related to taxation, used to balance weigher, see if they are getting the right amount

• high quantity beads - incredibly tiny, important trade good

• reddish, clay, black bands, fish scale pattern - standardized pottery

the “Priest King” Sculpture

there is no monuments dedicated to any individual in this society

we see no elaborate tombs or depictions of powerful leaders

however, some suggest that the small sculpture identified as the “Priest King” may represent an elite member of society

• had a patterned cloak, armband, headband, well groomed beard

the “Peaceful Realm” - no evidence of powerful rulers or military

strong evidence of organized administration though

the civilization had a rapid decline, unknown as to why - environmental reasons, drought has been proposed

Discussion Notes - how is status reflected in the record? do we have these indicators today?

in the record :

• burials - obvious indicator, Giza, Terracotta army

• depictions of elite - elaborately dressed

• architecture - elite residences, palaces, temples compared to other housing

• imported goods - great wealth indication, rare minerals in burials, who has access to resources

• food supply - imported, access to better quality diet, animal remains found, who gets the best cut of meat, malnutrition

• clothing - may not be able to tell, would not preserve well

• access to education, knowledge of writing, who it was written about

Today :

• still have depictions of the elite - royalty, government figures, celebrities

• housing - neighborhoods based on wealth, size, complexity, location

• designer brands, clothing, cars - flaunt wealth

• elaborateness of burials - headstones, still have royalty buried with wealth, size of ceremonies

• social media - won’t preserve

Mesoamerica

the region including central and southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and the western parts of Honduras and Nicaragua

this region shares many distinct cultural characteristics

The Olmec - Mesoamerica

a Mesoamerican culture that occupied the lowlands of the Gulf of Mexico coast about 3,200yrs ago

the Olmec are the first in Mesoamerica to produce monumental architecture

Olmec sites display common art motifs which reflect shared religious expression throughout the region

• first to move towards state civilization

• abundant water, agricultural, seasonal flooding - food surplus, influence non-agricultural labor and therefore specialist jobs

Olmec regal-ritual centers includes

La Venta (Mexico) - 1400 to 600 BC

San Lorenzo (Mexico) - 1400 to 900 BC

• about 1100 people, large pyramidal mound, some burial mounds, some act as stages for ceremonial purposes, dwellings of elite mounds

• many ceremonial goods, stone thrones, alters - buried beneath

• signs of intentional destruction of architecture and ceremonial statues - political unrest likely led to the decline

these are important Olmec ritual centers which were home to the religious and political elite

these settlements demonstrate the movement towards complexity

they provide evidence that Olmec society was hierarchical with a powerful ruling class, increasing population density, and evidence of specialization

• populations in the thousands - not super large

• evidence of social ranking - residential areas, elite on complex mounds, tombs for elite, larger amount of grave goods

Monumental Olmec Heads - Colossal Heads

images of human heads carved from huge blocks of stone

measure between 1.47m to 3.4m tall and weigh up to 40 tons

may represent portraits of Olmec rulers, depictions of the elite

• human faces carved into the rock - all wearing helmets, headdresses - all slightly different

• around 17 have been identified

• stones had been transported over 8km - huge undertaking to move, organized workforce, probably using waterways and barges

• shared cultural practices and beliefs throughout the region; art served as a unification of the areas, groups come together to participate in ceremonies

first to show movement to complexity

laid down basis for other groups in Mesoamerica

The Maya

a Mesoamerican civilization centered in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and eastern Mexico especially the Yucatan Peninsula

the Maya culture dominated this region for 1500yrs

they flourished during the Classic Period - AD 250 to 1000

Agriculturists - intensive care to produce a surplus

• corn, beans, squash - created the basis of life

• constructed raised crops, slash and burn

• this was able to increase yield, storage, support increased population

• 10 thousand people

Maya Urban Centers

Tikal and Palenque are big sites

there were 40 to 50 large Maya urban centers, each with their own rulers

Maya cities include temples, palaces, ball courts, raised road networks, and water reservoirs

lots of monumental architecture, sophisticated engineering

Tikal - Maya city in northern Guatemala

300 BC to AD 900

Tikal was the largest of the Maya cities during the Classic Period

population was estimated to be as high as 60,000 people at its peak, large dense populations - state indication

monumental architecture includes pyramids topped with temples

Temple 1 - ‘Temple of Giant Jaguar” served as the tomb of one of Tikal’s rulers

• pyramid-like, not solid stone structures, smaller shrines inside, rubble and mud built up the center, encased with stone

three central tiers - pyramids, palaces - nobility - urban centers; known Maya format

3000 structures have been identified here - palaces, plazas

no permanent lakes or rivers nearby - engineered the landscape so water would drain into a reservoir

last dates monument - coincides with a time of severe drought - led to abandonment

Palenque, Mexico - Maya capital

this Maya capital dates AD 431-800

monumental architecture includes the palace and the Temple of Inscriptions

the palace served as a residence and an administrative center

the Temple of Inscriptions is a stepped pyramid; a hidden stairway in the center of the monument connected the temple at the top of the pyramid to a burial chamber at its base - the tomb belonged to a ruler name Pakal

• Pakal came to power when he was 13 and ruled for 68 years - incredibly large time for the age he came to power - AS 615 to AD 683 - was known as a great ruler

the sarcophagus lid of Pakal the Great depicts Pakal suspended between life and death, and surrounded by typical elements of Maya iconography

• city had hydraulic engineering - redirect water into storage

• rulers buried in elaborate tombs with incredible wealth, decorations down the stairway

• had a calendar system - easy to tell who ruled and when

• great wealth - jade mask, jade jewelry buried with

Record Keeping - Maya Hieroglyphic Script

the Maya recorded text on monuments and created books called codices

screenfold books were made from pounded bark, covered in plaster and then painted with glyphs - most of the codices were destroyed at the time of the Spanish conquest

the Maya developed calendar systems based on astronomical observations

one calendar system is a 365-day cycle consisting of 18 months with 20 days and a short month with 5 days

• the Spanish wanted to convert the Mayans to Christianity - burned the codices, only 4 remain today

• although 4 remain, there are many conscriptions everywhere, along buildings

• function of writing - main importance was ceremonies and lives of rulers; marriages, deaths, births, victories in battle

invented the number 0

sophisticated understanding of time

Mayas had a long cycle that ended in 2012 - people predicted the Mayans thought the world ended at that time

Teotihuacan Civilization

is a city-state in central Mexico, flourished between 100 BC and AD 650

• city-state - the whole area was under one ruler, multiple settlements

• were agriculturists - small farming settlements, few hundred people in a community - around 500 BC there was a huge population shift to large communities - irrigation rise, food surplus

• the first true city in the Americas

population is estimated to be between 100,000 and 200,000 people - very large urban center, large dense population - the city covers an area of 20 square km

a 5km long street called the Avenue of the Dead divides the city in half

the San Juan River was altered to conform to the city’s grid layout

architecture includes temples, marketplaces, craft workshops and apartment complexes - over 2600 structures have been identified

• can see different social levels - can tell by home making and elaborateness, high status

• no signs of poverty, well taken care of, rich settlements, probably through trade goods

• 500 craft workshops have been found - imported shells and other resources

• obsidian was a huge resource here - manufacturing tools - thought to have been chosen for close location to obsidian, but also its along the river - trade and communication route

• has ethnic neighborhoods - certain areas of Maya culture

political organization - clear evidence of planning, architecture, monuments, urban planning - grid like pattern - had some kind of leadership - areas of specialists

Teotihuacan Civilization - Monuments and Writing

debate on writing evidence - don’t see glyphs, see some images and symbols that could maybe indicate precursor glyphs

know little about the community - don’t know rulers, dates, how they relate to surrounding groups, temple names, what they even called themselves

• their name today comes from Aztec writing

• the site was very important to the Aztecs even after abandonment - was even worked into their mythology

• “The Place Where Men Become Gods” - Aztec name

Two sacred structures include the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon

• huge massive scale pyramids - used for ceremonies, religious purposes - was built in stages

• the Sun Pyramid is the largest monument - core is rock, gravel, mud brick, all plastered and brightly painted, said to be modelling the nearby mountains

• seem to believe in the same gods as the Aztec

• evidence of building on already present religious area, sacred area even before built - offerings predate the building

• Avenue of the Dead - little temples along the path were thought to be tombs - now know they were probably platforms for other buildings

• Pyramid of the Moon - sacrificial offerings put in while building - people found to be non-locals - possibly captured

AD 650 - collapsed, abandonment of city, evidence of fire destroying monuments, maybe uprising against the state

• there is evidence of drought - huge city, can’t support the population, evidence of malnutrition at this time, and a high degree of infant mortality

The Aztec

the Aztec dominated central Mexico from AD 1350 until the arrival of the Spanish in 1519

they constructed Chinampas - raised agricultural beds built in lakes and swamps

• increased the amount of land available for growing crops

• artificial islands created in swampy areas, drive stakes into the lake bottom, weave branches to build up, bring in soil, grow on top - bean, corn, squash

• very labor intensive - bring in fresh soil continuously

very sophisticated - ruled over a massive area, controlled, estimates 10 million people in the empire

is called and Empire - diverse groups under a single ruler, pay tribute to the leadership, turning over portions of goods (food, rubber, feathers, jade, etc.)

didn’t force defeated groups to convert to Aztec religion, as long as groups provided tribute, they were given protection from the leadership

Tenochtitlan - Aztec capital city

by the 15th century, its population was 150,000 to 200,000 people

this was the largest city in the Americas when the Spanish arrived in 1519

was built on an island in Lake Texcoco and was connected to the mainland by causeways, built up areas of land connecting to other landforms

central part - most important temples, ritual areas

thought to be like Venice, travel around through waterways

Mexico City was built on top of it, many buildings remain, but lots was damages or ruined

Aztec - The Templo Mayor

a large temple complex built in the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan

the monument had twin pyramids with stairways

was built in stages between AD 1325 and 1520

sacred monument - many ritual practices and ceremonies - sacrificial victims found, statues, ritual objects, face masks

6 temples, each built on top of each other, in between layers were offerings

temple was destroyed when the Spanish took control of the city in 1521 - built their own religious buildings right on top

Aztec Decline

Montezuma - ruler before the Spanish arrival - his son, Montezuma II was ruling during the overtake

the arrival of the Spanish caused the downfall of the Aztec - convert to Christianity - Hernando Cortez was the leader of the Spanish

arrived, heard of the rich kingdom, had new tech, cannons and muskets

quickly overthrew the leadership, within 2 years had complete control

brought diseases, epidemics decimated the population, helped lead to the overtake

was also uprising against Montezuma II, tyrannical ruler

disease, warfare, famine

The Roots of Complexity in South America - Caral

Caral is in Peru’s Supe River Valley

• both coastal areas and the Andean Highlands - first complexity movement

it represents the earliest development of a complex society in the Norte Chico Region of South America

dates about 5000 years ago

the site of Caral has several large-scale monuments including a massive, flat-topped pyramid called the Piramide Mayor - in the central zone, this style of architecture becomes common in the area

• monumental architecture, ruling elite, differential access to wealth and resources, evidence of trade, agriculture being practiced

• 65 hectares - 3000 people

• residential dwellings, elite had platforms lifting home, smaller more crowded on the outskirts

• different access to prestige objects - central area has more valuable goods and resources

• circular plaza area - ceremonies, ritual center - evidence of instruments, maybe performers

• agriculturists, but used marine and coastal resources, had irrigation (squash, beans, cotton), trade goods, fishing nets made from - important trade center for the region

others built on the accomplishments of these areas

The Roots of Complexity in South America - Chavin

emerged in the Andean highlands of Peru

dates to about 3000 years ago, flourished from 900 to 200BC

set the stage for the development of later South American civilizations

a distinctive art style developed in western South America - the religious iconography served as a unifying force

Chavin de Huantar is an important Chavin civic-ceremonial center - came to site to take place in ritual, between two rivers, surrounded by sacred mountain peaks

• showing off power of leadership

• had about 15 different stages of construction

• outside of ceremonial area there was residential areas, have identified an area of elite dwellings - social ranking

• differences in diet - high status people have better access to best cuts of meat, eating younger, more tender llama

• imported goods - pottery from hundreds of km away - taking part in religious activities

Emergence of Civilization in South America - Nazca

Pre-Inca culture developed in the coastal regions of south central Peru

dates about 1800 years

Nazca lines - aerial photography

• geoglyphs on the desert floor, patterns created on the ground surface

• pushed aside the darker sediments, revealing the lighter ones underneath, not very deep

• arid, dry environment - remarkably preserved

• monkeys, spiders, geometric shapes, etc.

• large, km long

• ritual, ceremonial purposes, evidence of sacrificial victims buried along

• these similar images were produced in a variety of art, pottery, paintings

Cahuachi, Peru is the most well known Nazca site

• coming from far away to be part of religious ceremonies

Nazca Pottery

• known for their polychrome pottery

• ceramic vessels, stirrup shaped handle, vibrant images, mythical representations, glazed

• also seeing preserved textiles with patterns - specialist craft

Emergence in South America - Moche

another Pre-Inca society that developed on the northern Peruvian coast

dates about 1700 years ago

monumental architecture includes the Huaca del sol - Pyramid of the Sun

• was constructed from more than 140 million adobe bricks

• very seriously impacted by looting - much was destroyed - was even said the river was diverted to erode faster and reveal goods

elaborate elite burials have been identified at several Moche sites, including Sipan

• Lord Sipan royal burial

• class of warrior priest - incredibly elaborate goods - precious stones, weapons, sacrificial victims - elite status

• was discovered by looters - but were stopped before anything was taken

skilled craftspeople who created finely made ceramics using molds

• many were portraits of people, maybe high status

• see political and religious society structures represented on pottery

• incredible gold and silver - showing battles - precious stones on

Emergence in South America - Chimu

another Pre-Inca South American civilizations that spread across more than 1300km on the coast of northern Peru

flourished 1000 to 500 years ago

Chimu capital city is called Chan Chan, had a population up to 40,000 people, 20 square km area

ten enclosures called ciudadelas have been found - served as the palaces of the rulers during their lives, and as their burial places when the ruler died

• after king died, their palace became their tomb, each ruler had to build their own palace

• enclosures made of mud brick, images inscribes - fisherman on boats, looks like the ones used today in Peru

were skilled potters and goldsmiths; skilled craftspeople, fine woven textiles, copper, silver, pottery

• high burnished pottery, fired in an environment with little oxygen, gives black appearance

• gold, silver, copper grave goods, religious objects

Chimu were in control right before the Inca

incredibly arid area - good preservation of artifacts

residential areas, craft workshops, irrigation canals - agriculturists, continuous expansion of territory for crops - led to success and rapid expansion

sophisticated architecture - surrounded with walls, privacy and protection from the wind, 3m at bottom, 1m at top - very stable

when Inca took over, brought the group under their control, incorporated their way of life

Split Inheritance - Chimu and Inca practice

practiced split inheritance - after death, wealth not passed to son, wealth remains with the ruler, taken care of after death, continuously brought offerings

• next ruler inherited the power, not the wealth

• the king would be taken care of in death, but wealth could also be distributed to all remaining family

the Inca Empire

civilization that dominated the Andes region from the early 1400s to 1532

called their nation Tawantinsuyu, which means land of the four quarters

ruled a vast region of western South America extending from Ecuador to northern Chile - incredibly large area, a million square km

rapidly expanded their territory bringing conquered groups under their control - military campaigns, strict control over conquered areas

at its peak, about 10 million people were part of the Inca empire

had a powerful army, 80,000 soldiers

the Inca ruler was called the Inca, title of the king

• beneath was sons and grandsons - power would be given to them after death

• then immediate family, the nobles, wealthy people - honorary Inca

• practiced split inheritance

• usually body was mummified, and placed in temple, tomb - continuously brought offerings, food, drink

most well known civilization in South America

decline in empire - the arrival of the Spanish, overthrew the empire

groups unhappy with the Inca taking control - may have contributed to the downfall

Mit’a and Mitmaqkuna - Inca Control

Inca leadership maintained strict control over its citizens

Mit’a - Inca term for the labor required of its citizens devoted to state projects

• coordinated labor force, estimated 2 million workers

Mitmaqkuna - Inca term for the people of conquered lands who the Inca then separated and dispersed by resettling them, all in an effort to prevent their rebelling against the state

• 80 different provinces, ethnic Inca was governor

• when relocated, treated well, given the best farmland - taken from locals, forbidden from interacting with the locals

• made the unpopular in area among locals, but loyal to the government

Cuzco - Inca Capital

estimated population of 100,000

similar layout compared to other civilizations

“the Navel” - the center, everything ordered around it

• all administrative centers

• the most important temple was here - dedicated to the Sun god, Inti - walls were covered in gold, inside and out

careful layout, planning - central area protected

said to be laid out in the shape of a puma, mountain lion

many temples, palaces were destroyed by the Spanish

Spanish built their buildings over the most sacred building grounds

Inca Record Keeping

Khipu / Quipu - system of knotted strings used to record information

quite a bit different compared to other areas

not two-dimensional

string hung horizontally, knotted string hang down off it

the style of knot, the color, the size, the placement, direction of knots and string, the material of string - all relay specific information

Khipucamayuq - people who recorded the info, knew how to read

intentionally destroyed with the arrival of Spanish - convert to Christianity, damage to their culture

seem to record numerical information, a base 10 numerical system, accounting info - 2/3 of them represent

the other third seems to represent accomplishments of rulers, historical events

however, no one has been able to decipher them yet

Inca Textiles

were skilled weavers, and textiles were highly valued

skilled in using looms - some incredibly well preserved due to arid environment

considered the most valuable objects - weavers were high status

suggested that woven objects had information and stories incorporated into them

usually in a checkered style

Inca Terraces

crops were grown on agricultural terraces

• had a large food surplus, had enough to feed population for years

• increase the land available for crops

• steep mountainsides - haul in stone, build up ground, make irrigation canals

• potatoes and corn - store houses full of

• had moved water down from higher latitudes, held up by rocks, when rocks were moved the water would fall over ever terrace to water the crops

Inca Road Network

had an extensive road network with 40,000km of roads connecting the empire

also constructed storage facilities called qollqa

• even the most distant, small communities were connected by the road

• rapidly move trade goods, messages, army

• also had suspension bridges

messengers - Chaski - relay throughout the whole empire, one every 6-9km, goods and info passed from person to person to the whole empire

Machu Picchu, Peru

significant Inca site located high in the Andes Mountains

Hiram Bingham visited in 1911, was the first to document the site - had wanted to find the lost cities of the Inca

built between 1450 and 1470 for the Inca ruler, Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui

suggested it served as a royal retreat for the Inca leader

• actual use or representation in unknown - very isolated, royal retreat

one of the 7 wonders of the world

small, walled settlement, 500-750 population, deliberately built in isolation, difficult access, narrow trail - single file, easily blocked

200 structures, incredibly cut stone, put together very precisely, no mortar needed, very stable

evidence of different social status

• 150 buildings for those who lived there

• 3 clusters of houses much more finely made, larger, more private, best views, private fountains of fresh water - seems to represent the elite compounds

sacred site - Temple of the Sun, 30 shrines, most relating to the summer solstice

hundreds of terraces carved out of surrounding mountain sides, canals directing water from higher altitudes - food and resources for those who occupy the site

during the Spanish takeover, most temples were destroyed, Machu Picchu was intact, seemingly forgotten during the takeover

Collapse of the Inca Empire

in 1532, a group of Spanish led by Francisco Pizarro invaded Peru - the Inca are the civilization they encountered

Atahualpa was the Inca ruler when the Spanish arrived

by 1534 the Spanish had control of the Inca Capital

• Conquistador, Conqueror

• didn’t care much for maintaining the empire, just wanted the power

• the civilization had already been weakened before the arrival - smallpox, diseases

• two half brothers had been fighting for control, civil war - recovering from

• leader was captured, ransom was demanded and paid, yet was still killed, and the capital was taken over

important to remember that the Inca people did not just disappear, huge shift in power, numbers significantly declined, but people and the culture still survived