AP Psych Terms Unit 3.1 - 3.4 Development & Learning

Development Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Nature vs. Nurture

Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?

Cross-Sectional Research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

Longitudinal Research

A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed

Continuous

Refers to the view that development is a gradual, continuous process.

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Maternal Illnesses

Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, severe influenza

Rooting

a reflex in which a newborn turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek

Visual Cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Critical Periods

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

Genetic Mutations

Changes in the genetic material of cells that passes from one generation to another.

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus

Maturation

Biological sequence (order) relatively unaffected by experience

Secondary Sex Characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Menarche

the first menstrual period

Spermarche

the first ejaculation

Sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Gender

the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman

Sexual Orientation

our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual orientation)

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender Role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females

Gender Identity

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Gender Typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Social Script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years old) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2-6 or 7 years) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Theory of Mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental state - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7-11 years) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Lev Vygotsky

most famous for social development theory (of child cognitive development) such as the Zone of Proximal Development

Scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

Crystallized Intelligence

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tend to increase with age

Stranger Anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Pretend Play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Imaginary Audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

Personal Fable

The belief held by adolescents that they are unique and invincible, leading them to think that their experiences and feelings are completely distinct from others.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home.

Discontinuous

Refers to the view that development occurs in a series of distinct stages.

Inner Speech

Children can internalize the help they’ve received and can “talk themselves” through problems.

Moro Reflex

When startled, baby flings limbs out and slowly retract them

Babinski Reflex

When a baby’s foot is stroked, they will spread their toes

Fluid Intelligence

One’s ability to reason speedily and abstractly; decrease with age

Novelty Preference

New objects are viewed longer than familiar ones