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Industrial Revolution

A term first coined in 1799 to describe the burst of major inventions and economic expansion that began in Britain in the late eighteenth century

Spinning Jenny

A simple, inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine created by James Hargreaves in 1765

Water Frame

A spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower; it therefore required a larger and more specialized mill — a factory

Steam Engines

A breakthrough invention by Thomas Savery in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 that burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump; the early models were superseded by James Watt’s more efficient steam engine, patented 1769

Rocket

The name given to George Stephenson’s effective locomotive that was first tested in 1829 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 35 miles per hour

Crystal Palace

The location of the Great Exhibition in 1851 in London; an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass and iron

Iron Law of Wages

Theory proposed by English economist David Ricardo suggesting that the pressure of population growth prevents wages from rising above the subsistence level

Tariff Protection

A government’s way of supporting and aiding its own economy by laying high taxes on imported goods from other countries, as when the French responded to cheaper British goods flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products

Factory Acts

English laws passed from 1802 to 1833 that limited the workday of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements

Separate Spheres

A gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner

Mines Act of 1842

English law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under ten

Class-consciousness

Awareness of belonging to a distinct social and economic class whose interests might conflict with those of other classes

Luddites

Group of handicraft workers who attacked factories in northern England in 1811 and later, smashing the new machines that they believed put them out of work

Combination Acts

British laws passed in 1799 that outlawed unions and strikes, favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans. Bitterly resented and widely disregarded by many craft guilds, the acts were repealed by Parliament in 1824

Chartism

A British working-class movement for political reform that emerged in the 1830s and 1840s. The movement was aimed at achieving political and social rights for the working class

Proletarianization

The transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners

English Factory Act of 1833

English laws passed from 1802 to 1833 that limited the workday of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements

Congress of Vienna

A meeting of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain), restoration of France and smaller European states to fashion a general peace settlement that began after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814

Holy Alliance

An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in September 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe

Karlsbad Decrees

Issued in 1819, these repressive regulations were designed to uphold Metternich’s conservatism, requiring the German states to root out subversive ideas and squelch any liberal organizations

Liberalism

The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty; liberals demanded representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of worship, and freedom from arbitrary arrest

Laissez Faire

A doctrine of economic liberalism that calls for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy

Nationalism

The idea that each people had its own genius and specific identity that manifested itself especially in a common language and history, which often led to the desire for an independent political state

Socialism

A backlash against the emergence of individualism and the fragmentation of industrial society, and a move toward cooperation and a sense of community; the key ideas were economic planning, greater social equality, and state regulation of property

Marxism

An influential political program based on the socialist ideas of German radical Karl Marx, which called for a working-class revolution to overthrow capitalist society and establish a Communist state

Bourgeoisie

The upper-class minority who owned the means of production and, according to Marx, exploited the working-class proletariat

Proletariat

The industrial working class who, according to Marx, were unfairly exploited by the profit-seeking bourgeoisie

Romanticism

An artistic movement at its height from about 1790 to the 1840s that was in part a revolt against classicism and the Enlightenment, characterized by a belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life

Corn Laws

British laws governing the import and export of grain, which were revised in 1815 to place high tariffs on imported grain, thus benefiting the aristocracy but making food prices high for working people

Battle of Peterloo

A protest in Manchester, England, in 1819 where calvary charged into a crowd of 60,000-80,000 protestors advocating for parliamentary reform. It resulted in deaths and injuries and highlighted the tensions between the working class and the government

Reform Bill of 1832

A major British political reform that increased the number of male voters by about 50 percent and gave political representation to new industrial areas

Great Famine

The result of four years of potato crop failure in the late 1840s in Ireland, a country that had grown dependent on potatoes as a dietary staple

Greater Germany

A liberal plan for German national unification that included the German-speaking parts of the Austrian Empire, put forth at the national parliament in 1848 but rejected by Austrian rulers

Saint-Simon

A utopian socialist who believed that society should be organized to benefit the productive members, such as scientists and industrialists. Saint-Simon advocated for a planned society and the application of science to solve social problems

Blanc

Blanc was a French socialist and historian. A leading socialist thinker, he advocated for worker cooperatives as a key to social reform. He believed in the principle of 'from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs,' and promoted the idea of national workshops funded by the state to provide employment for all.

Proudhon

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was a French socialist, politician, philosopher, economist and a member of the French Parliament. He is considered one of the most influential theorists of anarchism, particularly mutualism

Foruier

Charles Fourier was a French Utopian socialist and philosopher. He advocated for a reorganization of society based on cooperative communities called "phalanxes." Fourier envisioned these phalanxes as self-sufficient communities where individuals would work in jobs that matched their passions and interests, thus creating a harmonious and productive society. He also promoted gender equality and believed in the abolition of wage labor. While his ideas were influential among some socialist thinkers, they were also criticized for being impractical and overly idealistic

The Communist Manifesto

Authored by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848, it is a foundational document of Marxism that analyzes class struggle, critiques capitalism, and predicts its eventual overthrow by a proletarian revolution

Metternich

An Austrian diplomat who was at the center of European affairs from 1815 to 1848, he strongly believed in conservatism and worked to suppress liberal and revolutionary movements

Burschenschaften

Student associations in German universities that promoted German nationalism and liberal ideals after the Napoleonic Wars. They advocated for German unity and constitutional reforms, often expressing their views through demonstrations and gatherings

Charles X

Charles X was the King of France from 1824 to 1830. His reign was marked by conservative policies and attempts to restore the power of the monarchy, leading to increased tensions and ultimately, the July Revolution of 1830

Utilitarianism — Jeremy Bentham

The idea of Jeremy Bentham that social policies should promote “the greatest good for the greatest number”

Germ Theory — Louis Pasteur

The idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled

Labor Aristocracy

The highly skilled workers, such as factory foremen and construction bosses, who made up about 15 percent of the working classes from 1815 to 1914

Sweated Industries

Poorly paid handicraft production, often carried out by married women paid by the piece and working at home

Companionate Marriage

Marriage based on romantic love and middle-class family values that became increasingly dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century

Separate Spheres

A gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as the wage earner

Suffrage Movement

A militant movement for women’s right to vote led by middle-class British women, which exemplified broader international campaigns for women’s political rights around 1900

Thermodynamics

A branch of physics built on Newton’s laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy

Second Industrial Revolution

The burst of technological innovation and science-drive industrialization that promoted strong economic growth in the last third of the nineteenth century

Evolution — Charles Darwin

Darwin’s theory that chance differences among the individual members of a given species that prove useful in the struggle for survival are selected naturally, and they gradually spread to the entire species through reproduction

Social Darwinism

A body of thought drawn from the ideas of Charles Darwin that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest

Realism

A literary movement that, in contrast to Romanticism, stressed the depiction of life as it actually was

Edwin Chadwick

Edwin Chadwick was a social reformer in 19th-century Britain, known for his work on public health. He advocated for improved sanitation and believed that cleaning up urban environments would reduce poverty and disease

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Jean Baptiste Lamarck was a French naturalist and biologist known for his theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, which posited that organisms could pass on traits acquired during their lifetime to their offspring, an idea later superseded by Darwin's theory of evolution

Auguste Comte

Auguste Comte was a French philosopher, mathematician and writer who formulated the doctrine of positivism. He is often regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term

Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer was an English polymath active as a philosopher, psychologist, biologist, sociologist, and anthropologist. Spencer originated the expression "survival of the fittest", which he coined in Principles of Biology after reading Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species

Garibaldi — Red Shirts

The Redshirts, also called the Red coats, are volunteers who followed the Italian patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi during his campaigns. The name derived from the colour of their shirts or loose-fitting blouses that the volunteers, usually called Garibaldini, wore in lieu of a uniform.

Giuseppe Maria Garibaldi was an Italian general, revolutionary and republican. He contributed to Italian unification and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. He is considered to be one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland", along with Camillo Benso di Cavour, King Victor Emmanuel II and Giuseppe Mazzini

Count Cavour

Count of Cavour or simply Cavour, was an Italian politician, statesman, businessman, economist, and noble, and a leading figure in the movement towards Italian unification

Otto von Bismarck

German statesman and diplomat who oversaw the unification of Germany and served as its first chancellor from 1871 to 1890. Bismarck's Realpolitik and firm governance resulted in him being popularly known as the Iron Chancellor

Homestead Act

Several laws in the United States by which an applicant could acquire ownership of government land or the public domain, typically called a homestead

Crimean War

A conflict fought between 1853 and 1856 over Russian desires to expand into Ottoman territory; Russia was defeated by France, Britain, and the Ottomans; underscoring the need for reform in the Russian Empire

Bloody Sunday

A massacre on 30 January 1972 when British soldiers shot 26 unarmed civilians during a protest march in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland.

October Manifesto

A document that promised political reforms and civil liberties in response to widespread unrest following the 1905 Revolution in Russia. It aimed to appease revolutionary forces and prevent further upheaval by granting key concessions

Duma

The Russian parliament that opened in 1906, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage but controlled after 1907 by the tsar and conservative classes

Tanizmat

A set of reforms designed to remake the Ottoman Empire on a western European model

Young Turks

Fervent patriots who seized power in a 1908 coup in the Ottoman Empire, forcing the conservative sultan to implement reforms

Reichstag

The popularly elected lower house of government of the new German Empire after 1871

Kulturkampf

German for "culture struggle," refers to a historical conflict, particularly in the 19th century, between a government and religious authorities, often over issues of power, education, and social influence

German Social Democratic Party

A German working-class political party founded in the 1870s, the SPD championed Marxism but in practice turned away from Marxist revolution and worked instead in the German parliament for social benefits and workplace reforms

Dreyfus Affair

A divisive case in which Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason. The Catholic Church sided with anti-Semites against Dreyfus; after Dreyfus was declared innocent, the French government severed all ties between the state and the church

People’s Budget

Generally refers to a budget that prioritizes the needs of ordinary citizens and aims to redistribute wealth and power in a way that benefits the majority

Zionism

A movement dedicated to combating anti-Semitism in Europe by building a Jewish national homeland in Palestine, started by Theodor Herzl

Revisionism

A socialist doctrine that rejected Marx's emphasis on class struggle and revolution and argued instead that workers should work through political parties to bring about gradual change

Neo-Europes

Settler colonies with established populations of Europeans, such as North America, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America, where Europe found outlets for population growth and its most profitable investment opportunities in the nineteenth century

Opium Wars

Two mid-nineteenth-century conflicts between China and Great Britain over the British trade in opium, which were designed to “open” China to European free trade. In defeat, China gave European traders and missionaries increased protection and concessions

Gunboat Diplomacy

The use of threat of military force to coerce a government into economic or political agreements

Global Mass Migration

The mass movement of people from Europe in the nineteenth century; one reason that the West’s impact on the world was so powerful and many-sided

Nativism

Policies and beliefs, often influenced by nationalism, scientific racism, and mass migration, that give preferential treatment to established inhabitants over immigrants

New Imperialism

The late-nineteenth-century drive by European countries to create vast political empires abroad

Afrikaners

Descendants of the Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony in southern Africa

Berlin Conference

A meeting of European leaders held in 1884 and 1885 in order to lay down some basic rules for imperialist competition in sub-Saharan Africa

White Man’s Burden

The idea that Europeans could and should civilize more primitive non-white peoples and that imperialism would eventually provide nonwhites with modern achievements and higher standards of living

Orientalism

A term coined by literary scholar Edward Said to describe the way Westerners described and misunderstood colonial subjects and cultures

Great Rebellion

The 1857 and 1858 insurrection by Muslim and Hindu mercenaries in the British army that spread throughout northern and central India before finally being crushed

Alexander II

Emperor of Russia, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from 2 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881. Alexander's most significant reform as emperor was the emancipation of Russia's serfs in 1861, for which he is known as Alexander the Liberator

Meji Restoration

The restoration of the Japanese emperor to power in 1867, leading to the subsequent modernization of Japan

Hundred Days of Reform

A series of Western-style reforms launched in 1898 by the Chinese government in an attempt to meet the foreign challenge

Leopold II

Was the second king of the Belgians from 1865 to 1909, and the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908

Triple Alliance

The alliance of Austria, Germany, and Italy. Italy left the alliance when war broke out in 1914 on the grounds that Austria had launched a war of aggression

Triple Entente

The alliance of Great Britain, France, and Russia prior to and during the First World War

Schlieffen Plan

Failed German plan calling for a lightning attack through neutral Belgium and a quick defeat of France before turning on Russia

Total War

A war in which distinctions between the soldiers on the battlefield and civilians at home are blurred, and where massive government intervention in society and the economy ensures support for the war effort

Trench Warfare

A type of fighting used in World War I behind rows of trenches, mines, and barbed wire; the cost in lives was staggering and the gains in territory minimal

February Revolution

Unplanned uprisings accompanied by violent street demonstrations begun in March 1917 (old calendar February) in Petrograd, Russia, that led to the abduction of the tsar and the establishment of a provisional govenment

Petrograd Soviet

A huge, fluctuating mass meeting of two to three thousand workers, soldiers, and socialist intellectuals modeled on the revolutionary soviets (or councils) of 1905

Bolsheviks

Lenin’s radical, revolutionary arm of the Russian party of Marxist socialism, which successfully installed a dictatorial socialist regime in Russia

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Peace treaty signed in March 1918 between the Central Powers and Russia that ended Russian participation in World War I and ceded territories containing a third of the Russian Empire’s population to the Central Powers

Lenin

A Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He was the first head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 until his death in 1924, and of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death

War Communism

The application of centralized state control during the Russian civil war, in which the Bolsheviks seized grain from the peasants, introduced rationing, nationalized all banks and industry, and required strict workplace discipline