PSY 324 Exam 2

Rules

concept may be represented as strict definition, usually expressed
linguistically

Rules Weakness

difficult to generate a comprehensive rule to adequately define a part. category

Prototypes

concept may be represented as aggregate entity which on avg most frequently reflects essential features of category

Prototype Weaknesses

prototype may not necessarily reflect a true instance of a category, sometimes struggle to predict empirical results

Exemplars

concept is 1+ memory traces of category members, objects and events categorized based on similarities to sets of exemplars in memory

Category Structure

refers to 3 details: # of items in category, dimensions that determ category membership, and relationships betw those dimensions and their values

Category Structure 2

according to part. accuracy rates in serial presentation categorization task, consistent order emerged for difficulty of six structures; I < II < [III, IV, V] < VI

Category Structure Example

how many objects are there? 4; how many dimensions can be observed across the objects? 3 – color, shape, and size; how many values do these dimensions have? 2 each

Six Structures Studied by Shepard, Hovland, & Jenkins (1961)

4 objects defined over 3 binary dimens can be arranged into 6 structures, all diff inter-dimen relationships, 32[4] - VDO

Hierarchical Concepts

superordinate (animal), basic level (dog), and subordinate (poodle)

Basic Level Advantage

“cat” is more likely R than either “animal” (superordinate) or “Burmese cat” (subordinate)

Conceptual Combination

concepts combine to make sense of novel entities, e.g. pink chalkboard, we form mental images w/o any encounter

Iconic Memory

visual stimuli

Echoic Memory

auditory stimuli

Haptic Memory

tactile stimuli

Cattel (1886)

found parts could recall 4-5 letters from array, consistent regardless of how many letters in array (min. 6)

Sperling (1960)’s Partial Report Technique

parts. heard tone as array was presented indicating which row to report

Sperling (1960)

refined Cattel’s experiment to examine span of apprehension; partial report technique revealed around 75% of letters reported, even when array featured more letters

Sperling (1960) Implications

iconic memory can’t survive long and must be passed on to short-term memory to be used

Crowder & Morton (1969)

examined auditory echoic memory with a digit recall experiment, parts’ ability to recall last 9 digits (out of 45) limited

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

est. temporal limitation of short-term memory to be 18s (current est 20-30s); state 4-letter consonant group, 3-digit #, count backwards by 3s for 30s

Conrad (1964)

subjects presented w/string of six letters, distraction task – reading digits aloud, errors often rhymed (e.g., “D” instead of “B”), acoustic encoding!

Wickens (1972)

evidence for semantic encoding, subjects presented w/3 members of some category (e.g. flowers – rose, tulip, daisy)

Wickens (1972) Distraction Task

counting backward by threes, repeated 4x w/in category, perf. worsened, when a new category introduced, perf. improved

Miller (1956)

ppl evidence memory limitations to approx 7 chunks; chunk is grouping of info to make memory more effective, e.g. phone #

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

working memory theory: working memory provides temporary storage and manipulates info for cognitive use

Short-Term Memory

intermediary system betw info in env and perm memory storage, allows info to be processed into/extracted from perm storage

Acoustic Encoding

converting auditory info, such as sounds and words, into form that can be stored and retrieved by brain

Semantic Encoding

converting info into memory based on meaning or significance

Working Memory and Its Components

provides temporary storage and manipulates info for cognitive use

Serial Position Effect

probability of recalling an item in a list depends upon where it
fell in list sequentially

Primacy Effect

first item(s) in a list tend to be easier to recall

Recency Effect

last item(s) in a list tend to be easier to recall

Levels of Processing Effect (Craik & Tulving, 1975)

1. Case (upper or lower)

2. Rhyme

3. Does it fit in a sentence?

parts answered questions like these for 60 words total, later given list of 180 words and asked to recall which ones they previously saw

Craik & Tulving (1975) Findings

17% of words for case (visual encoding), 37% of words for rhyme (auditory encoding), 65% of words for meaning (semantic encoding)

Context Effects

list of items learned underwater better remembered underwater (and same for land)

Spacing Effects

repetitions spaced close - worse recall; repetitions spaced farther apart - better recall

Forgetting - Decay

duration of memory finite w/o use; eventually lost, robust evidence that memory recall worsens w/o being revisited

Forgetting - Interference

some memories can inh recall of others; Retroactive interference – new info interferes with old, Proactive interference – old info interferes w/new

Forgetting - Overwriting

earlier memories interfered with, to pt of erasure, in favor of new memories

Explicit/Declarative Memory

memories of factual info; semantic, episodic, conscious recall

Episodic Memory

memory of autobiographical events, e.g. birthday parties, specific conversations, yesterday’s lecture

Semantic Memory

general knowledge, facts, and categories; org by content (pen recalls pencil), allows inference, not tied to origin of memory (we don’t remember first pencil)

Hierarchical Model of Semantic Memory

specific memories are nodes, and assoc by links; reaction times are slower in recall the farther one must climb ladder, e.g. is a robin a bird? Faster, Is a robin an animal? Slower

Anterograde Amnesia

loss of ability to remember new info

Retrograde Amnesia

loss of ability to remember old info, Korsakoff Syndrome -  RA for both episodic and semantic info, AA impairs both!

Implicit Memory

any memories not consciously retrieved

Procedural Memory

retrieved memory relating execution of actions, memories accessed difficult to verbalize, e.g. driving

Jacoby & Dallas (1981) Results

levels of processing (semantic, acoustic, and visual) made big
difference in explicit condition, and nearly no diff in implicit condition!

Relationship of Understanding and Memory

processing info for understanding breeds memory

Schemas

structured “units” of knowledge that package pieces of info contained in memory and relations betw them; each item called a slot

Reconstructive Memory

reconstructing complex memories (sometimes incorrectly)

Eyewitness Testimony

memory impacted for worse by misleading info or misleading questions, Loftus, Burns, & Miller (1978) - misleading q with 38% correct answer rate v. 85% in a fair q (misinfo effect)

Misinformation Effect

causes- overwriting (replaces existing info), source confusion (true memory confused w/simulated one), and misinfo acceptance (simply trust that info given is true)

Flashbulb Memories (Role of Personal Impact)

memories of highly sig events, or those “burned” into our minds; personal impact critical in creating true flashbulb memory - Neisser & Harsch (1992)

Repression

lose ability to recall traumatic memory of event until later in life

Suppression

neuroscience research suggests humans w/some control over suppressing intrusive memories

Analog Representations

mimic structure of a referent object incl relationships among its components

Propositional Representations

abstract relations that do not reflect any sensory modality, such as direction from A to B

Mental Rotation

our ability to perform these rotations suggests some kind of internal representation

Selective Interference

imagined stimuli interfered with their perception of signals, evidence mixed

Picture Superiority Effect

converging evidence suggests that we remember images and pictures more effectively than abstract info

Dual-Coding Hypothesis

images can be stored as analogs or propositions, but other knowledge and info may not have analog option

Face Recognition

humans uniquely good at recog facial details, more than for most other types of images