ap psych chapter 6

learning

the process of acquiring

new and relatively enduring

information or behaviors.

habituation

an organism’s

decreasing response to a stimulus

with repeated exposure to it.

associative learning

learning

that certain events occur together.

The events may be two stimuli

(as in classical conditioning) or a

response and its consequences (as

in operant conditioning).

stimulus

any event or situation

that evokes a response.

cognitive learning

the acquisition

of mental information, whether

by observing events, by watching

others, or through language.

classical conditioning

a type of

learning in which one learns to link

two or more stimuli and anticipate

events.

behaviorism

the view that

psychology (1) should be an

objective science that (2) studies

behavior without reference to

mental processes. Most research

psychologists today agree with (1)

but not with (2).

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical

conditioning, a stimulus that elicits

no response before conditioning.

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an

unlearned, naturally occurring

response (such as salivation) to an

unconditioned stimulus (US) (such

as food in the mouth).

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in

classical conditioning, a stimulus

that unconditionally—naturally

and automatically—triggers a

response (UR).

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned

response to a previously neutral (but

now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in

classical conditioning, an originally

irrelevant stimulus that, after

association with an unconditioned

stimulus (US), comes to trigger a

conditioned response (CR).

acquisition

in classical

conditioning, the initial stage, when

one links a neutral stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus so that the

neutral stimulus begins triggering

the conditioned response. In operant

conditioning, the strengthening of a

reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a

procedure in which the conditioned

stimulus in one conditioning

experience is paired with a new

neutral stimulus, creating a second

(often weaker) conditioned

stimulus. For example, an animal

that has learned that a tone predicts

food might then learn that a

light predicts the tone and begin

responding to the light alone. (Also

called second-order conditioning.)

extinction

the diminishing of

a conditioned response; occurs

in classical conditioning when

an unconditioned stimulus (US)

does not follow a conditioned

stimulus (CS); occurs in operant

conditioning when a response is no

longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an

extinguished conditioned response.

generalization

the tendency,

once a response has been

conditioned, for stimuli similar to

the conditioned stimulus to elicit

similar responses.

A P ® Exam Tip

discrimination

in classical

conditioning, the learned ability to

distinguish between a conditioned

stimulus and stimuli that do not

signal an unconditioned stimulus.

operant conditioning

a type

of learning in which behavior

is strengthened if followed by a

reinforcer or diminished if followed

by a punisher.

Law of Effect

Thorndike’s

principle that behaviors followed

by favorable consequences

become more likely, and that

behaviors followed by unfavorable

consequences become less likely.

operant chamber

in operant

conditioning research, a chamber

(also known as a Skinner box)

containing a bar or key that an

animal can manipulate to obtain a

food or water reinforcer; attached

devices record the animal’s rate of

bar pressing or key pecking.

reinforcement

in operant

conditioning, any event that

strengthens the behavior it follows.

shaping

an operant conditioning

procedure in which reinforcers

guide behavior toward closer

and closer approximations of the

desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus

that elicits a response after

association with reinforcement

(in contrast to related stimuli not

associated with reinforcement).

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting

positive reinforcers. A positive

reinforcer is any stimulus that,

when presented after a response,

strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or

reducing negative stimuli. A negative

reinforcer is any stimulus that, when

removed after a response, strengthens

the response. (Note: Negative

reinforcement is not punishment.)

primary reinforcer

an innately

reinforcing stimulus, such as one

that satisfies a biological need.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus

that gains its reinforcing power

through its association with a

primary reinforcer; also known as a

secondary reinforcer.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a

desired response will be reinforced.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response

every time it occurs.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a

response only part of the time;

results in slower acquisition of

a response but much greater

resistance to extinction than does

continuous reinforcement.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant

conditioning, a reinforcement

schedule that reinforces a response

only after a specified number of

responses.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a

reinforcement schedule that

reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses.

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a

reinforcement schedule that

reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning,

a reinforcement schedule

that reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals.

punishment

an event that tends to

decrease the behavior that it follows.

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording,

amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle

physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

respondent behavior

behavior

that occurs as an automatic

response to some stimulus.

operant behavior

behavior that

operates on the environment,

producing consequences.

cognitive map

a mental

representation of the layout of

one’s environment. For example,

after exploring a maze, rats act as if

they have learned a cognitive map

of it.

latent learning

learning that

occurs but is not apparent until there

is an incentive to demonstrate it.

insight

a sudden realization of a

problem’s solution.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to

perform a behavior effectively for

its own sake.

extrinsic motivation

a desire

to perform a behavior to receive

promised rewards or avoid

threatened punishment.

coping

alleviating stress using

emotional, cognitive, or behavioral

methods.

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress

directly—by changing the stressor

or the way we interact with that

stressor.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by

avoiding or ignoring a stressor

and attending to emotional needs

related to one’s stress reaction.

learned helplessness

the

hopelessness and passive

resignation an animal or human

learns when unable to avoid

repeated aversive events.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or

outside forces beyond our personal

control determine our fate.

internal locus of control

the

perception that you control your

own fate.

observational learning

learning

by observing others. Also called

social learning.

modeling

the process of observing

and imitating a specific behavior.

mirror neurons

frontal lobe

neurons that some scientists

believe fire when performing

certain actions or when observing

another doing so. The brain’s

mirroring of another’s action may

enable imitation and empathy.

prosocial behavior

positive,

constructive, helpful behavior. The

opposite of antisocial behavior.