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Louis XVI
The King of France during the French Revolution. France, by the time he was crowned, was in financial ruin due to the Seven Years' War and the American Revolution. Now, France's debt wasn't a lot bigger than other countries, but the problem was the inability of the crown to collect taxes from the nobles and service that debt. Local parlements were constantly at odd with the monarchy, and refused to pay taxes, claiming it was their right. Louis tried calling in several finance ministers, though nothing helped and the Estates General was called in 1789. He was executed by revolutionaries after trying to escape to Austria in 1791.
Marie Antoinette
Known as the last queen of France, Marie was an Austrian princess that was portrayed as an outrageous spender, which was not true. She was married to Louis XVI, but neither he nor herself were fit to lead the country in the state it was in. She was executed by revolutionaries before the Reign of Terror.
Rene Maupeou
One of the finance minsters of France who was determined to collect taxes from the nobility and disbanded parlements. Louis XVI dismissed him upon taking the throne.
Jacques Necker
One of the finance ministers of Louis XVI who used dubious financial slight of hand to make the situation seem better. He was popular among the peasants.
Charles Calonne
One of the finance ministers of Louis XVI who demanded tax reform and internal trade. Nobles refused.
Estates System
The 1st Estate was the clergy, the 2nd Estate was the nobility, and the 3rd Estate was... pretty much everybody else (merchants, peasants, etc.). Each estate held equal representation, which made a lot of people mad, especially the 3rd Estate.
Estates General
Called in 1788 by Louis XVI due to the how bad the financial situation was. This was seen as the monarchy being a failure. It took a year for them to actually meet since everyone was trying to figure out exactly how it worked (it hadn't been called since 1614). When it did meet, unresolved problems such as how representation and voting would work caused immense problems, so nothing really got done. Mind you, they needed 2-3 estates to agree to pass anything, and that just wasn't happening.
National Assembly
The king did not participate in most of the proceedings of the Estate General, which made a lot of people mad. By mid June of 1789, the 3rd Estate and much of the 2nd decided to form their own group, called the National Assembly. In mid June Louis decided to call a special session that shut down the National Assembly meeting places.
Tennis Court Oath
Due to the constant failure of Louis, on June 20th members of the National assembly vowed not to leave their meeting place (a tennis court) until they came up with a plan to help the country. This marked an irrevocable change in France.
Storming of the Bastille
By July of 1780 Louis decided to fully support conservatives at court and worked against the National Assembly. He began mustering troops near Versailles and Paris, also dismissing Necker. On July 14 the mobs of Paris broke into the Bastille and "freed" the prisoners and more importantly, weapons. After this, Louis wavered and gave in to the National Assembly.
National Guard
On July 15, Marquis de Lafayette was offered command of the Parisian militia that had begun to form in response to Louis mustering troops. They became known as the Nation Guard, and they began using the colors of red, white, and blue.
The Great Fear
People across France feared royal repression, so they burned things and refused to pay feudal dues. On August 4, 1789, groups of nobles with the National Assembly renounced their privileges which they had pretty much lost already, but this calmed the situation.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
On August 27, 1789, this document was issued. It stated quite a few things, including:
The guaranteed life, liberty, and property of everyone
All were equal before the law
Freedom of Religion
Equal taxation
This was not a Constitution (that would take 2 years to create). This was simply a statement of ideals.
Women's March on Versailles
On October 5, 1789, a crowd of thousands of women marched to the palace of Versailles from Paris due to the fact that Louis wasn't really supportive of any of the changes and food was scarce. After a tense few hours, some of the people brutally murdered the guards. Louis and his family were "escorted" to Paris and Versailles was ransacked.
Why was the revolutionary movement moving forward? Why France and not, say Russia?
Enlightenment thought had spread and this was a movement largely led by the bourgeoisie with support from many aristocrats. It had power, organization, and widespread appeal. These didn't exist in Central and Eastern Europe.
Constitutional Monarchy of 1791
During this time, the economy was still a huge problem, and the government didn't want to repudiate or default on its debts (most of them were owed to the wealthy in France). Tax collection was difficult at best, and the solution was to confiscate all the Church lands and turn it into money. The new government issued paper assignments that were treated like money, though too many were printed and inflation skyrocketed (sound familiar?). The National Assembly took control of the Church as well, and now all French Church leaders would be voted on and paid by the state. Rome, of course, condemned them and many people in France felt torn between the revolution and their religion (bad move by the National Assembly). Louis was given the power to temporarily veto legislation, but the vast majority of his power was stripped from him.
Departments
French provinces that were more "naturally organized." Was an attempt to take power from the old nobility.
Emigres
French nobility who fled country to escape the Revolution.
La Marseillaise
The national anthem of France that painted foreign countries (or aristocrats or both) as the enemy.
Cahiers de Doleances
Statements of local grievances drafted throughout France during the elections to the Estates General, advocating a regular constitutional government abolishing fiscal privileges of the church and nobility
Flight of a King
Louis, on June 20, 1791, tried to flee with his family to Austria, but were caught a few days later in Varennes. It was clear Louis was a traitor to the revolution, and he and his family were imprisoned.
Declaration of Pillnitz
Issued by Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia, it said that they would invade France to protect the royal family - which they would attempt to do quite soon. With all of this happening, tension was high.
San-culottes
Working class people unconcerned with freedom and liberty. They were seen as a radical, but they really just wanted food.
Paris Commune
Working class people push for more, particularly in Paris, and they created an elected assembly known as the Paris Commune.
1792 September Massacres
Over 1200 people who were in the city jails were brutally murdered by an angry mob of citizens.
The Convention
On September 21, 1792, the National Assembly met and reformed to now be called the Convention. They pushed for universal male suffrage and a true republic. The National Assembly, under the direction of the Paris Commune, was pushing for this at literal gunpoint.
Jacobins
The political party that took control of the situation in France.
The Mountain
The more extreme Jacobins that moved to work with the radical san-culottes.
Girondins
The more moderate Jacobins, who wanted to save the King.
The Guillotine
Seen as a more humane way of killing people by quickly cutting off their head, the French revolutionaries began using it to execute anyone, and it was used to punish everyone the same way, no matter status.
Death of a King
On January 21, 1793, Louis was put on trial and found guilty of treason. His sentence of death was passed by one vote and was executed by guillotine. More would follow his fate in October. After this, France declared war on Great Britain, Holland, and Spain. Prussia renewed hostilities, and counter-revolutionary activities erupted in the Vendee region of France. Never before had Europe been so united against a single cause. The aristocracy throughout Europe always fought each other but now there was a real possibility they might simply cease to exist should the revolution spread.
Edmund Burke
A British statesman who predicts a lot of chaos and turmoil that would happen during the French Revolution. Britain moved to limit freedoms such as that of the press to suppress revolutionary ideas.
Reign of Terror
By 1793 there was a real fear outsiders would destroy the revolution and hence the Reign of Terror, which sent terror into the hearts of those who would harm the revolution, began. From the fall of 1793 to summer of 1794, thousands would be killed if they were even suspected of going against the revolution or were the family of someone described prior. This only ended with the death of Robespierre
Committee of Public Safety
Created in 1793 to concentrate power in France. Was lead by Robespierre. In early June 1793 the sans-culottes violently ejected all Girondins from the Convention and only the Mountain remained. The council instituted forced conscription during this time, and with the fear of enemies abroad and enemies within, the council directed the execution of thousands in France.
Levee en Masse
In 1793 the Committee of Public safety instituted forced conscription on the entire population; something that no country in Europe had ever done.
Republic of Virtue
Virtue was interested for the republic over oneself and meant to be an end to aristocratic corruption. The Terror would be instituted in the name of Republican virtue led by Robespierre. It's policies included excluding women from political life, the dechristianization of France, and revolutionary tribunals.
Society of Revolutionary Republican Women
Initially welcomed by the Committee of Public Safety, but were seen as too divisive - many were guillotined like Olympe de Gouges.
Dechristianization of France
New non-religious calendar, Notre Dame renamed Temple of Reason, closed churches, and killed/harassed/tortured clergy.
Revolutionary Tribunals
These were set up throughout France and using secret police/informants anyone seen as an enemy was arrested and given a summary trial/execution: guillotine, mass shooting, and mass drowning were used.
Jean-Paul Marat
A journalist and scientist, as well as an associate Jacobin; Marat (1743-93) helped launch the Reign of Terror and complied death lists, being an advocate of violent measures. He was stabbed to death in his bath by Charlotte Corday, immortalized in the David painting The Death of Marat.
Georges Danton
French revolutionary leader who stormed the Paris bastille and who supported the execution of Louis XVI but was guillotined by Robespierre for his opposition to the Reign of Terror (1759-1794)
Maximillian Robespierre
The man who led the Committee of Public Safety and the Republic of Virtue. While first against the death penalty, he soon signed off on thousands of executions. In 1794 he was executed for the extremities that he continued to push for and the realization that the Reign of Terror would only end with his death.
Law 22 Prairial
In June of 1794, Robespierre secured the passage of this, allowing for suspects to be convicted without substantial evidence.
Thermidorian Reaction
A reaction to the violence of the Reign of Terror in 1794, resulting in the execution of Robespierre and the loosening of economic controls.
The Directory
Established after the Reign of Terror / National Convention; a five man group as the executive branch of the country; incompetent and corrupt, only lasted for 4 years.
What caused the French Revolution?
There were several influences to the revolution. The big one was the financial instability of France. The incompetency of Louis XVI also played a big factor in all of this as well. A third factor would be France's involvement in the American Revolution, which led to revolutionary ideas returning to France, which was already in disarray.
Why didn't everywhere else throughout Europe revolt?
A good number of the nobility were willing to give up their privileges and fight with the revolutionary Third Estate. There was a great deal of organization to this, as well as financial aid from the nobles. Poland did try to revolt, but it was very unsuccessful due to the disorganization and thousands ended up dying.
How did the Revolution develop and change?
At first, the Revolution was about creating a Constitutional Monarchy that would bring economic stability to France, but as extremists continued to grow in power, radical ideas were put forward. Once the king escaped, he was easily marked as a traitor, which pushed the revolution, which had been, at first, political in most ways as Louis retained some power, to radical with the death of the king.
Who benefitted the most from the Revolution?
The people in the Third Estate. At the end of the day, they got what they wanted, and were no longer put down by the nobility. While life was still extremely difficult, now everyone was paying equal taxes and fewer burdens lay on only the Third Estate's shoulders. Napoleon could also be considered for this, as it gave him a window of opportunity to climb to power. In the end, though, it should be seen that the middle class everywhere benefitted, as the long terms of the revolution led to the middle class gaining more power and fewer burdens. More equality.
How did the rest of Europe view the Revolution?
They saw it as a challenge to the Great Chain of Being and the power of the monarchy and nobility. It scared them, and they pushed heavily against it. It was the one time Europe was that united against a single country.
Was the Revolution a success or failure?
In the short term, it was a failure. After Napoleon the monarch was restored to the throne, though the power scale had definitely shifted forever. Also, thousands of people died. In the long term, it gave rise to ideas of the nobility not being on top, and would later be the basis for the revolutions in the later 1800s.
Napoleon Bonaparte
Born in 1769 to a middle class family, the revolution gave him the opportunity to be sent to a military academy where he joined the army at 16 as an artillery officer. By 1793, at the age of 24, Napoleon was a general, a Jacobin, and played a leading role in removing the British from the Port City of Toulon. He worked for the Committee of Public Safety, and put down rebellions throughout France. In 1797 he engaged in a campaign that put the entire Italian Peninsula under French control, and later that year he invaded Egypt where he was defeated, but still seen as a hero. Returning to France in 1799, Napoleon proved to be quite adept at politics, and managed to pull off a bloodless takeover of the Directory that left him in virtual control of France. He made himself emperor in 1804, did a lot of bad stuff, was sent to an island, came back, was defeated, and then was sent to an even further island. He died an exile, but he was still a hero to the French people.
Concordant with the Catholic Church 1801
Napoleon brought religion back into French life by 1802 - most people wanted this. He retained a lot of control over clergy selection and got to keep all confiscated lands.
Napoleonic Code 1802
It safeguarded property. Abolished the privileges of the nobility. Took away rights from workers and women (puts power back into men + the family). Reorganized the mess of French legal codes into one centralized system. This held some very enlightened ideas.
Battle of Trafalgar
The British were constantly a thorn to Napoleon. By 1805, Spain was under French control and Napoleon planned to use the combined French and Spanish fleets to destroy the British Navy. On October 21, 1805 the British destroyed the combined fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar. Nothing would challenge Britain's naval power again until WWI. If this battle had been won by Napoleon, there was a good chance that Britain would have been invaded by him and put under French control, which would have altered history as we know it.
Battle of Austerlitz
On December 2, 1805, the combined Austrian and Russian forces were smashed. The Holy Roman Empire was forever dissolved, and the Confederation of the Rhine was made. Prussia, who had remained neutral, declared war on Napoleon less than a year after this battle and was crushed.
The Treaty of Pressburg
Following Austerlitz, Napoleon took Venetia from Austrians (who'd received it in 1797) and he annexed it to his recently acquired kingdom in Italy. This kingdom included much of Italy north of Rome. The Adriatic port cities of Venice and Trieste started building up Napoleon's fleet.
Treaty of Tilsit
On June 13, 1807, Napoleon destroyed the Russians in yet another battle. Alexander I was forced to make peace. During this time, Napoleon began to put his family members on the thrones of Europe and married an Austrian Habsburg Maria Louise - now he had a dynasty.
Continental System
Britain was Napoleon's only real threat after the Treaty of Tilsit with Russia in 1807. However, he couldn't invade Britain o he engaged in economic warfare. In the Continental system, all countries under French control, allied with France, or neutral were forbidden to trade with Great Britain. This hurt Britain a lot, but it hurt the other European nations more - the British had an oversea empire. Russia in particular was hurt by this system, and Great Britain very much wanted Russian timber for shipbuilding. This system would be the start of Napoleon's downfall.
Nationalism
One of the factors that led to Napoleon's downfall. In Prussia, Napoleon's invasion and destruction of Prussian forces awakened a sense of nationalism - ironically what the French had done in their country became a model. Junkers worked to create a sense of patriotism and abolished serfdom - not because they wanted to, but they needed the support.
Confederation of Rhine
Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire and formed the Confederation of the Rhine, excluding Prussia and Austria.
German Confederation
Association of German states established at the Congress of Vienna that replaced the Holy Roman Empire from 1815 to 1866.
Peninsular Campaign
The British landed Arthur Wellesley in Spain with an army that worked with Spanish peasants to wage a guerilla war against the French.
Francisco Goya
A Spanish painter of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Among his works is a series of paintings and etchings that powerfully depict the horrors of war.
Arthur Wellesley
Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington was an Anglo-Irish British Army soldier and statesman, widely considered one of the leading military and political figures of the first half of the nineteenth century. Commissioned an ensign in the British Army, he rose to prominence in the Napoleonic Wars, eventually reaching the rank of field marshal.
Alexander I
The Tsar of Russia who withdrew from the Continental system in 1810, which led to Napoleon invading in 1812.
Grande Armee
The army Napoleon created to invade Russia with. It was 600,000 soldiers strong.
1812 Invasion of Russia
Napoleon invaded in the summer and expected a quick victory. The Russians refused to fight ,except at the Battle of Borodino where they were defeated. Napoleon decided to winter in Moscow, but the Russians had destroyed all the food in the countryside and burnt most of Moscow to the ground. With no food or shelter, Napoleon was forced retreat. Napoleon only returned to France with 60,00-100,000 soldiers - the cold, lack of food, and Russian guerilla attacks decimated them.
Battle of Waterloo
This was the battle that Napoleon lost after his return from Elba that ended his reign as French ruler.
Hundred Days
The brief period during 1815 when Napoleon made his last bid for power, deposing the French King and again becoming Emperor of France for 100 days. He lost.
Congress of Vienna
The main goal of this meeting was to create a balance of power in Europe and was all bout making sure no one state became too powerful. Restored the French monarchy. Territories shifted around France to prohibit expansion. The statesman Klemens von Metternich was the great architect of this. While conservative in nature, this represented a shift where these peace agreements were more about actual peace than victory - you want to prevent war (peace lasted for a few decades).
Romanticism
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment had left people with a clear defined sense of the world. Anything could be understood or figured out through the use of reason. A lot of people looking at these ideas and the industrialization of society felt something was missing. Can you explain feelings such as despair, love, or joy through reason and science? A lot of writes, thinkers, and artists said no. this isn't to say reason is bad, just there is more to understanding life. Romanticism is a celebration of the individual, of thoughts, of feelings.
Rousseau
While part of the Enlightenment, he also opposed parts of it. He believed in allowing nature to be free. Children should be allowed to raise themselves with minimal restraints from parents - you explore and learn as you grow. Children before this time were treated like young adults.
Kant
Believed pure reason could explain the sensory experience of life. However, there was an inner world/life he called the noumenal world. The innate sense of morals and duty everyone possess he called the categorical imperative. Basically, you could use reason to learn a lot, but here was an intangible inner part to us all that was just as important that reason or science could not explain.
Romantic Era Writers
Will Wordsworth, Lord Bryon, Mary Godwin Shelley, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. They all write about feelings, emotions, inner beauty. Poetry is seen as the greatest expression of the mind and self as it is an interaction with the transcendental world. Frankenstein - the attempt to create life only results in horror. Faust - Deals made with the devil for knowledge but redemption found.
Romantic Era Artists
John Constable, Casper Friederich, and Joseph Malford William Turner. Paintings capture nature, power the imagination. Also a sense of push and pull with nature and industrialization.
Methodism
Methodists led by John Wesley were part of a religious revival moment. Emphasis on enthusiasm and emotion as part of religious conversions.
John Wesley
Leader of the Methodist movement
Johann Herder
Individuals and societies developed over time organically, like plants.
Georg Hagel
One of the most influential thinkers in Western History. His thoughts on history included:
Predominant set of ideas called the thesis.
These were challenged by antithesis.
The result was a clash and mixing whereby there was synthesis.
The synthesis became the new thesis.
He greatly influenced Marx and communistic ideas.
