Exam 2 - Cave Paintings to Cathedrals

Sarcophagus with reclining couple/sacrophogus of a man and woman, from the Banditaccia necropolis, Cerveteri, ca. 520 BCE, painted terracotta, 3’ 9.5” x 6’7”, Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome, Etruscan Period 6th cent bce

Model/reconstruction of a typical Etruscan temple of the sixth century BCE, as described by Vitruvius

Arringatore, Aule Metele (Aulus Metellus), from Cortona, Italy, early 1st century BCE, bronze, 5’ 7” high, Roman Late Republic Period, 1st century BCE

Funerary relief with portraits of the Gesii, from Rome, Italy, ca. 30 BCE, marble, 2’1.5” high, Roman Late Republic

Temple of Portunus (the port god—located near the port facilities), Rome, ca. 75 BCE, Roman Late Republic

Restored view and plan of a typical Roman house of the Late Republic and Early Empire, Roman Pompeii. (1) fauces, (2) atrium, (3) impluvium, (4) cubiculum, (5) ala, (6) tablinum, (7) triclinium, (8) peristyle.

Gardenscape, Second Style wall paintings, from the Villa of Livia, Prima Porta (near Rome), Italy, ca. 30-20 BCE, fresco, 6’ 7” high, Roman Pompeii Period (destroyed by Vesuvius in 79 CE)

Linear perspective; atmospheric perspective

Pine, quince, pomegranates, oleander, violets, swallow, magpies, blackbirds, etc.

Dionysiac mystery frieze, Second Style wall paintings in room 5 of the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, ca. 60-50 BCE, fresco, frieze 5’ 4” high, Roman Pompeii

Third Style wall painting, from cubiculum 15 of the Villa of Agrippa Postumus, Boscotrecase, Italy, ca. 10 BCE, fresco, 7’ 8” high, Roman Pompeii

Portrait of Augustus as general, from Primaporta, Italy, early 1st century CE copy of a bronze original of ca. 20 BCE, marble, 6’ 8” high, Roman Empire Period, 27 BCE-306 CE

Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace), looking northeast, Rome, 13-9 BCE, Roman Empire Period

Apollodorus of Damascus (architect), Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 3) libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) forum, 6) equestrian statue of Trajan., Roman Empire

Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome,

dedicated 112 CE, Roman Empire

Pantheon (looking south), Rome,

118-125 CE, Roman Empire

Ashoka’s lion capital, Sarnath, India, polished Chunar sandstone, 7’ high, c. 250 BCE (on pillar inscribed with Buddhist dharma), Mauryan Dynasty Period, 322-185 BCE

The Great Stupa, Sanchi (begun by Ashoka), mid-3rd century BCE, Mauryan Dynasty

Buddha seated on a lion throne, from Mathura, India, second century CE. Red sandstone, 2' 3 1/2" high. Archaeological Museum, Mathura. Kushan Dynasty Period, 1st-3rd century CE

Standing Buddha, from Gandhara, Pakistan, second to third century CE. Gray schist, 3' 3" high. Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin. Kushan Dynasty

Shakyamuni and Prabhutaratna, from Hebei Province, Northern Wei dynasty (Six Dynasties Period), 518 CE. Gilt bronze, 10”. Musée Guimet, Paris, Six Dynasties Period, 220-589 CE

Vairocana Buddha, disciples, and bodhisattvas, limestone, Fenxian grotto, Longmen caves, Luoyang, China, Tang dynasty, completed 675 CE, Patronized by Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, Tang Dynasty Period, 618-906 ce

Western Paradise (Paradise of Amitabha), fresco, cave 172, Dunhuang, Gansu, China, Tang dynasty, 2nd half of 8th century CE

Shaka triad, by Tori Busshi (Master Craftsman Tori), Asuka Period (52-645 CE), 623 CE. Bronze, 3’ high. Kondo, Horyu-ji, Nara Prefecture, Japan.

Colossal head, La Venta, Mexico, ca. 900-400 BCE, basalt, 9’ 4” high, Pre-Classic Period: c. 1500 BCE – 200 CE

Aerial view of Teotihuacán (looking south), Mexico. Pyramid of the Moon (foreground), Pyramid of the Sun (center left), and the Ciudadela (top left), all connected by the Avenue of the Dead; main structures ca. 50–250 CE, Classic Period: 200-900 CE

‘Great Goddess’, wall painting in the Tetitla apartment complex at Teotihuacán, Mexico, 650–750 ce. Pigments over clay and plaster. Classic Period

Lid of the sarcophagus of K’inich Janaab Pakal (“Lord Pakal”), from the Temple of the Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico, Maya, ca. 683CE. Limestone, 12' 6" x 7' 2". Classic Period: c. 200-900 CE

Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, Lintel 24 of Structure 23, Yaxchilán, Mexico, Maya, 723–726 CE. Limestone, 3' 7" x 2' 6 1/2". classic period

Embroidered funerary mantle, from the southern coast of Peru, Paracas, 1st century CE. Camelid weave with embroidery, 4' 7 7/8" x 7' 10 7/8". Early Intermediate Period: 200 BCE-600 CE

Hummingbird, Nasca Plain, Peru, Nasca, ca. 500 CE. Dark layer of pebbles scraped aside to reveal lighter clay and calcite beneath, geoglyph, Early Intermediate Period

South façade of the Arch of Constantine, Rome, 312-315 CE, Late Antiquity/Early Christianity Period

Dura Europos, Synagogue, tempera on plaster(wall painting), ca. 245-256 (before 256 - lost to Sassanians) Late Antiquity/Early Christianity

The Good Shepherd, the story of Jonah, and orants, painted ceiling of a cubiculum in the Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, Rome, early 4th century, Late Antiquity/Early Christianity

Restored cutaway view (top) and plan (bottom) of Old Saint Peter’s, Rome, Italy, begun ca. 319, first half of 4th century, (1) nave, (2) aisle, (3) apse, (4) transept, (5) narthex, (6) atrium. Late Antiquity/Early Christianity

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, from Rome, ca. 359, marble, 3’ 10.5’’ x 8’ Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro, Rome, Late Antiquity/Early Christianity

terracota

a durable, porous, brownish-red, or brownish-orange clay-based ceramic fired at low temperatures. Typically unglazed

Tuscan column

a, simple, sturdy, and unadorned classical architectural order originating from ancient Italy. Defined by their smooth, unfluted shafts, plain bases, and simple, capital moldings, they are considered a simplified version of the Doric order.

veristic

a style of art or literature that is extremely, or strictly, naturalistic, prioritizing intense realism over idealism. It focuses on depicting subjects—often everyday people or aging subjects—with high detail, warts-and-all accuracy.

pseudo-peripteral

a classical structure featuring a front portico with free-standing columns, while the sides and rear feature engaged columns (attached to the walls) rather than a continuous, detached colonnade. This design creates the appearance of a peripteral (surrounded) temple while allowing for a larger interior space (cella).

tufa (tuff)

a porous, soft form of limestone created by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from ambient-temperature water, such as springs, lakes, or rivers. In art and archaeology, it is prized for being lightweight and easy to carve

travertine

Travertine is a porous, banded form of sedimentary limestone () deposited by hot springs and mineral waters. Often featuring yellow, beige, or white tones, this is a durable, natural stone

concrete

a durable construction material made from a mixture of hydraulic cement, water, and aggregates (sand, gravel, or crushed stone) that hardens into a solid mass

Arches and vaults

Arches are self-supporting, curved structures composed of wedge-shaped blocks (voussoirs) that span openings and carry heavy loads by converting downward pressure into lateral force. Vaults are three-dimensional, extended arches that form arched ceilings or roofs, with common types including barrel, groin, and rib vaults

Pliny

Gaius Plinius Secundus, known in English as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, scientist, naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, procurator, and friend of the emperor Vespasian

fresco

a mural painting technique involving water-based pigments applied directly onto freshly spread, moist lime plaster.

cubiculum

a small private room in an ancient Roman house, often located off the atrium or peristyle, typically used as a bedroom, resting place, or intimate reception area.

skenographic

the art of designing and creating performance spaces, encompassing stage scenery, lighting, costume, and sound to produce a unified, immersive, and often three-dimensional visual experience. Originating from Greek skēnographía (scene painting)

the art of perspective representation especially as applied to the design and painting of stage scenery.

linear perspective

a mathematical, artistic system used to create the illusion of three-dimensional space and depth on a two-dimensional surface

atmospheric perspective

a technique used in art to create the illusion of deep space on a 2D surface by mimicking how the atmosphere affects human vision over distance. It involves reducing color intensity, contrast, and detail in distant objects while shifting their colors toward cooler, blue-grey tones.

color modeling

a technique where artists define form, volume, and three-dimensional structure primarily through the use of color, contrast, and hue shifts rather than through traditional shading (chiaroscuro) or tonal modeling

Parthians

Parthian Roman refers to the antagonistic relationship, cultural exchange, and artistic representation of the ancient Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD) by the Roman Empire. Parthians were depicted in Roman art as "oriental" foes—often kneeling, wearing Phrygian caps, trousers, and beards—symbolizing Rome’s eastern conquests or worthy adversaries, particularly remembered for their elite horse archers and the "Parthian shot" tactic. Parthian refers to the ancient Iranian civilization of Parthia (c. 250 BC – AD 226) or its people and language.

Buddha

an "Awakened One" or "Enlightened One," a title rather than a personal name, referring to someone who has attained full enlightenment (bodhi), transcended suffering, and awakened from the sleep of ignorance. The Buddha is considered an awakened human being, not a supreme god or deity

Bodhisattva

a compassionate, enlightened being in Buddhism who seeks Buddhahood not just for themselves, but to help all sentient beings achieve liberation. They often vow to postpone their own final nirvana to assist others, acting as selfless guides.

bodhi tree

a sacred fig tree (Ficus religiosa) located in Bodh Gaya, India, under which Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha, attained enlightenment (or bodhi, meaning "awakening") around the 5th century BCE. It is a major symbol in Buddhism representing spiritual awakening, wisdom, and the Buddha’s triumph over suffering.

intaglio

a design or figure carved into a hard material (like stone or metal) so that it is sunken below the surface, which is the opposite of a relief carving (cameo). It also refers to a printing technique (e.g., etching, engraving) where ink is held in these recessed lines to transfer images to paper.

yaksa/yaksi

Yakshas (male) and Yakshis/Yakshinis (female) are a broad class of nature spirits, deities, or demigods found in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist mythology. They are generally considered caretakers of the natural world—associated with trees, forests, water, and wilderness—and are often viewed as benevolent guardians of treasure

Vedas

The Vedas are the oldest and most authoritative sacred scriptures of Hinduism, composed in archaic Sanskrit between 1500 and 500 BCE. Meaning "knowledge" or "wisdom," they are considered Shruti ("what is heard") and comprise four main collections—the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda—containing hymns, rituals, and philosophical teachings

Ashoka

the third emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty and is arguably the most significant patron of ancient Indian art and architecture. In art history, Ashoka is defined by his, conversion to Buddhism following the brutal Kalinga War, after which he used art as a tool to promote "dhamma" (righteous conduct/piety) and non-violence across his vast empire

circumambulation

the ritualistic act of walking clockwise around a sacred object, shrine, or monument, symbolizing reverence, devotion, and alignment with cosmic order in art history. It integrates physical, mindful movement with spiritual practice, commonly seen in Buddhist stupas, Hindu temples, and Islamic pilgrimage

mudra

symbolic, ritualized hand gestures and finger positions in art and spiritual practice, primarily representing the inner states, teachings, and life episodes of figures like the Buddha, bodhisattvas, or Hindu deities.

ushnisha

a prominent, three-dimensional protuberance or oval-shaped cranial bump on the top of the Buddha's head. It is one of the thirty-two major marks (lakshanas) of a "Great Man" (mahapurusha) and symbolizes supreme wisdom, enlightenment, and the attainment of spiritual power.

urna

a small, auspicious mark, often a whorl of hair or a circular dot, positioned on the forehead between the eyebrows of Buddha images in Buddhist art. It is one of the 32 "marks of a great man" (Mahapurisa Lakkhana) signifying spiritual enlightenment and omniscience

Empress Wu and Emperor Gaozong

Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) and Emperor Gaozong (r. 649–683) define a critical juncture in Tang Dynasty art, characterized by massive state-sponsored Buddhist projects, the "Tang International Style," and innovative self-imaging. Wu utilized art to legitimize her unprecedented rule as the only female emperor, notably commissioning the monumental Vairocana Buddha at Longmen Grottoes

Vairocana

a supreme celestial Buddha in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, often defined as the Dharmakāya (Truth Body or Reality Body) of all Buddhas. His name translates to "The Luminous One," "Radiant One," or "Sun," leading to his designation as the "Great Sun Buddha"

Amitabha,

Amitabha (Sanskrit: Amitābha, "Limitless Light"; Chinese: Āmítuófó; Japanese: Amida Butsu) is one of the most prominent celestial Buddhas in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, recognized in art history as a key figure in Pure Land devotion, symbolizing infinite light, wisdom, and compassion. He is distinct from historical figures, residing in a "Pure Land" or Western Paradise known as Sukhavati. the budha of infinite light

Pure Land Paradise (Western Pure Land)

a central Mahayana Buddhist concept representing a blissful, lotus-filled realm created by Amitabha Buddha, offering a direct path to enlightenment free from the suffering of samsara. Artistically, it is depicted through lush landscapes, palaces, and musical birds, focusing on welcoming the faithful after death.

jadeite

a rare, hard, and often translucent mineral—one of the two distinct materials known as jade—prized in art history for its vibrant green ("imperial") hues, durability, and glassy luster. Mesoamerica, representing status, purity, and life.

celt

a polished, elongated stone axe head, typically made of greenstone or jadeite, serving as a high-status ceremonial object or royal adornment. Often worn as belts or used in dedication rituals, these items symbolized maize, agricultural fertility, and power, with many carved with incised images

roof comb

a prominent vertical, often perforated, structural element built on top of Maya temples and palaces during the Classic period, serving as a decorative, non-structural, or symbolic crown. These, often intricately carved or plastered walls, increased the building's height and showcased elaborate portraits of rulers or gods.

geoglyph

a massive design or motif produced on the ground, typically measuring over 4 meters in length, created by arranging stones, gravel, earth, or by removing topsoil to expose contrasting substrate. These art-historical features are often best viewed from the air, serving ceremonial, artistic, or territorial purposes

tetrarchy

a late Roman style emphasizing unity, stability, and imperial power through blocky, stylized, and identical figures rather than individualized portraits. It rejects classical naturalism for stiff, symbolic forms, often carved from purple porphyry to represent the four rulers (two Augusti, two Caesares) established by Diocletian

labarum (with the Chi-Rho)

a 4th-century Roman imperial military standard, famously adopted by Emperor Constantine the Great, featuring a Chi-Rho (\xp\i \rh\o) monogram atop a cross-adorned banner. It functioned as a sacred, apotropaic symbol of victory and Christian identity, blending Roman imperial authority with Christian faith to signify divine approval of the state.

triumphal arch

a free-standing, monumental structure featuring one or more arched passageways, primarily created in ancient Rome to honor military victories and imperial power, often adorned with detailed reliefs and inscriptions. They are iconic examples of Roman propaganda, showcasing scenes of conquest

refrigerium

an ancient Roman commemorative funerary meal and an early Christian concept representing the spiritual peace and comfort of the soul in the afterlife.

In visual culture, particularly within catacomb paintings and on sarcophagi, this concept evolved from a pagan ritual of feeding the deceased to a symbolic representation of the resurrected soul enjoying eternal life

typology

the systematic classification and study of objects, images, or structures based on shared characteristics, forms, or styles to identify patterns, evolution, and cultural meaning. It organizes diverse items into types to analyze technological, chronological, and aesthetic shifts

longitudinal/basilical plan

an elongated, rectangular church design featuring a central nave with flanking side aisles and a terminal apse, oriented on a clear east-west axis. Originating from Roman civic structures, this layout directs focus towards the altar at the eastern end, commonly incorporating a high clerestory for lighting and a narthex entrance.

central plan

an architectural layout in art history where the structure is organized symmetrically around a central point, often featuring a circular, square, or polygonal shape

ambulatory

a covered walkway, specifically the semicircular aisle that wraps around the apse (rear) of a Romanesque or Gothic church's choir/altar area

nave

the central, longitudinal, and often high-ceilinged main body of a Christian church or cathedral, spanning from the entrance to the transepts or chancel, designed primarily for congregational worship

aisles

a longitudinal passageway or wing flanking the central nave of a church or basilica, separated by columns, piers, or an arcade

apse

a semicircular or polygonal, vaulted recess—typically at the eastern end of a Christian church—that houses the altar and serves as a focal point for worship

narthex

an enclosed entrance porch, vestibule, or lobby located at the western end of a Christian church, separating the exterior from the main nave.

atrium

a large, open-air or skylit central court in a building, originating as the main hall of an ancient Roman domus that provided light and air

transept

the transverse arm of a cruciform (cross-shaped) church, projecting perpendicular to the main nave and chancel. It extends on both sides of the crossing

syncretism

the blending, merging, or amalgamation of different cultural, religious, or artistic traditions to create new, unique forms. It occurs through cross-cultural contact, such as trade, conquest, or migration, allowing artists to blend local styles with foreign influences, resulting in hybridized iconography

prefect

A prefect in art history and classical studies refers to a high-ranking administrative or military official in ancient Rome, derived from the Latin praefectus ("put in charge"). They held significant authority over provinces, specialized government departments, or military units, representing the emperor's power.