UNIT 4

learning

the process of acquiring knowledge through experience new and relatively enduring info or behaviors

habituates

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together.The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link 2 or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant conditioning

we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Watson-behavirorism

view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists agree with the first but not the 2nd

natural stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (tone caused salivation)

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

Conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a new NS can become a new CS without the presence of US (lights -> tone -> food)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

behaviorists

underestimate cognitive processes

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Garcia effect

taste aversion, when nausea and a food are paired, the food will be averted in the future

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

a behavior followed by a reward is is strengthened and more likely repeated-able to teach pigeons non-pigeon behaviors

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

cognitive processes

your awareness (expectancy) of likeliness of stimulus affects reaction- dogs who can initially get out or watch another dog will jump out of hurdle

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer (rats don't respond to delayed reinforcers, but humans do)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses- strongest kind

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension-relaxation technique, u can see ur vitals and bring them down

applications of operant conditioning

School, sports, work, parenting, self-improvement

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

problem-faced coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

Seligman and learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

external locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

stockhold syndrome

a process whereby a captured person identifies with the captor as a result of becoming inadvertently dependent upon the captor

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

antisocial modeling

modeling detrimental, destructive, unhelpful behavior

reciprical determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

Skinner box (operant chamber)

a structure that is big enough to fit a rodent or bird and that contains a bar or key that the organism can press or peck to release food or water

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

identifying items previously learned (multiple choice)

relearning

learning smth more quickly when you learn it a second or later time, for example studying for a final exam allows you to relearn material more easily.

encoding

process of getting info into the memory system i.e. extracting meaning

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

brain's natural mode of info processing for many functions

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory (declarative memory)

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well

implicit memories (procedural)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory (sensory memory)

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

hierarchies

a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long

testing effect

enhanced memory and retrieving, rather than simply reading, info retrieval practice or test-enhanced learning

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences

explicit memory system

frontal lobes and hippocampus

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long

implicit memory system

cerebellum and basal ganglia

Cerebellum

forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basil ganglia

motor movement, procedural memories for skills

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

long-term memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list