AP Psychology Unit 1 Flashcards

Flashcards covering topics from AP Psychology Unit 1, focusing on biological bases of behavior.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate about the relative contributions of genes/heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in determining psychological traits and behaviors.

Natural Selection

The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Adaptation

The process by which a species becomes fitted to its environment through natural selection.

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

Twin Studies

Research that observes identical and fraternal twins to explore the influence of genetics versus environment.

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Sensory and motor neurons that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

"Rest and digest" system; automatically slows the body down after a stressful event.

Sympathetic Nervous System

"Fight or flight" response; automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilates pupils, and slows down digestion.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary functions and skeletal muscles.

Afferent Nerves

Sensory neurons that carry information from the body to the brain and spinal cord.

Efferent Nerves

Motor neurons that carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons in the brain and spinal cord that serve as an intermediary between sensory and motor neurons; carry information around the brain for processing.

Reflex Arc

Automatic responses to stimuli; sensory neurons take information up through spine to the brain, but some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cord.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Soma/Cell Body

Contains nucleus & DNA of a neuron.

Dendrites

Receives signals from other neurons.

Axon

Carry signals from one end of a neuron to the other.

Myelin Sheath

Insulates & protects axon.

Axon Terminals/Terminal Buttons

Send signals to the next neuron.

Glial Cells (Glia)

Support cells for the nervous system, providing extra protection and nourishment to neurons.

restinging potential

When not firing (or at rest), a neuron has a slightly negative charge; the ions are aligned or polarized.

Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse.

Action Potential

When firing an impulse, a neuron is active and ions are exchanged; the ions are scrambled or depolarized.

All-or-Nothing Law/Response

A neuron’s reaction of firing or not firing is not determined by the strength of stimulation, as long as the threshold is met.

Refractory Period

Brief pause between firings when the ions need to return to their original position, or repolarized.

Resting Potential

Once polarized, the neuron is back to resting potential.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.

Synapse/Synaptic Gap

Small space between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Reuptake

Process where neurotransmitters are released by the neurons and travel back across the synapse to be reabsorbed by the axon terminals.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath.

Myasthenia Gravis

Chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness and rapid fatigue of the voluntary muscles caused by a breakdown in the normal communication between nerves and muscles.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential by causing depolarization.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Decrease the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential by causing hyperpolarization.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory; undersupply linked to Alzheimer’s disease, oversupply linked to paralysis.

Dopamine

Influences voluntary movement, learning, attention, and emotion; undersupply linked to Parkinson’s, oversupply linked to schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply linked to depression, oversupply linked to anxiety/mania.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter; natural tranquilizer; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; undersupply linked to concentration problems, oversupply linked to seizures and migraines.

Endorphins

Influence the perception of pain and pleasure; Undersupply linked to depression, oversupply can make people anxious/wired

Substance P

Pain transmission; Undersupply linked with pain insensitivity, oversupply linked to Hyperalgesia (chronic pain), PTSD, IBD, and arthritis

Endocrine System

The body’s slow chemical communication system; consists of a series of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers of the endocrine system.

Adrenaline

Hormone released by adrenal glands to prepare body for emergencies (fight or flight).

Ghrelin

Hormone released by the stomach that causes feelings of hunger.

Leptin

Hormone released by fat cells that causes feelings of satiety.

Melatonin

Hormone released by the pineal gland that regulates the sleep/wake cycle.

Oxytocin

Hormone released by the pituitary gland that facilitates lactation and improves relationships (bonding hormone).

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods by stimulating, inhibiting, or mimicking neurotransmitter activity.

Agonists

Drugs that increase/mimic a neurotransmitter's action.

Antagonists

Drugs that block receptor sites.

Reuptake Inhibitors

Drugs that block the reuptake process, leaving the drug/neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap longer.

Substance Use Disorder

A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that distort perception and cause false sensory hallucinations; Ex. marijuana, mushrooms, LSD, ecstasy/MDMA (also a stimulant).

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow down bodily processes; Ex. alcohol, barbiturates.

Opiates

Drugs that decrease feelings of pain; Ex. heroin, morphine.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up bodily processes; Ex. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines (meth).

Tolerance

Diminished psychoactive effects after repeated use.

Withdrawal

Painful symptoms of the body re-adjusting to the absence of a drug.

Brain Stem

The oldest part of the brain, located at the base of the skull above the spinal cord, responsible for automatic survival functions.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls breathing and heartbeat.

Pons

Connects hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain together; involved in respiration and REM sleep; communications and coordination center between the two hemispheres of the brain.

Cerebellum

"Little brain" at the rear of the brain stem that coordinates movement and balance, processes sensory input, judgment of time, and enables nonverbal learning and memory.

Thalamus

Sensory "switchboard" located at the top of the brainstem that directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex.

Limbic System

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres that is associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Responsible for survival emotions of fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Responsible for processing and storing explicit memories of facts and events.

Hypothalamus

Below the thalamus; direct several maintenance behaviors, like eating, drinking, and maintaining optimal body temperature, helps regulate the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Pituitary Gland

"Master gland", controlled by the hypothalamus, responsible for the release of hormones throughout the body by controlling all endocrine glands.

Pineal Gland

Produces melatonin, regulating the body’s sleep cycle.

Corpus Callosum

Network of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain together, allowing for communication between them.

Cerebral Cortex

Intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres that functions as the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

Frontal Lobe

Behind your forehead, largest lobe; The prefrontal cortex is a critical region of the brain located at the front part of the frontal lobes involved in complex behaviors and executive functions.

Broca’s Area

Responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech, located in frontal lobe.

Motor Cortex

Sends signals to our body controlling muscle movements, located in frontal lobe.

Parietal Lobe

Top of the head; Receives sensory input for touch sensations (pain, pressure, temperature) and body position.

Somatosensory Cortex

Specified area of the parietal lobe that takes in sensory input from corresponding body parts.

Angular Gyrus

Written language and number processing, spatial recognition, and elements of memory, located in Parietal lobe.

Temporal Lobes

Above the ears; Includes auditory areas, each receiving input from the opposite ear, assists with memory.

Auditory Cortex

Organization and processing of auditory information, in Temporal lobe.

Wernicke’s Area

Responsible for language comprehension, located in Temporal lobe.

Occipital Lobes

Back of the head, above the cerebellum; Receives information from the visual fields of opposite eyes for visual processing.

Visual Cortex

Organization and processing of visual information, in Occipital lobe.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change, build, and reorganize after damage or experience.

Neurogenesis

The brain has to produce new neurons.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Electrodes placed on the scalp measure electrical activity in neurons.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A head coil records magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical currents.

Computed Tomography (CT)

X-rays of the head generate images that may locate brain damage.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Tracks where a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain of the person given it performs a given task.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

People sit or lie down in a chamber that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans.

Brain Lateralization

Tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Study of the brain activity linked with cognition, including language, perception, memory, and thinking.

Sleep

Periodic, natural loss of consciousness.

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock that regulates our mood, temperature, and arousal through a 24-hour cycle.